Digital Literacy and Equity Literature and Resources
This table includes links and summaries of the articles reviewed to develop the accompanying briefs, “Synthesis of Findings for Covered Populations” and “Digital Literacy and Equity: Key Concepts and Best Practices.”
| Type of Resource | Name of Program/Website/Resource | Brief Description | Website link or online shortcut for finding later | Year of origin | Topic(s) | Covered populations | Region | Location (if applicable) | What was effective and why? | How was that success measured or defined? | What was ineffective (if anything) and why? | What contributing factors or barriers led to the poor result? | Are there any related research findings, projects, or other studies going on? | What best practices (if any) emerge with this example? | Full APA Citation | In-Text Citation |
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| Program or Initiative | NCSU Staff senate digital access and inclusion project | The goal is to ensure equitable participation and full community engagement at the University by increasing digital access and knowledge for NC State employees who do not use computers regularly in their jobs. The Employee Experience and Relations Committee estimates that between 750-800 NC State staff do not use a computer regularly as a part of their job. Many of these staff members, primarily working in dining, housekeeping and groundskeeping services, may not have consistent or convenient access to digital technology and some may also need to build their technology skills in order to use digital tools effectively. Because of these digital access barriers, many staff may be missing important communications or opportunities for engagement and participation in the university community. | Digital Access and Inclusion Project – Staff Senate | 2022 | Digital equity, Digital literacy, Digital skills, Digital inclusion | English learners/not native speakers, Racial or ethnic minorities | North Carolina | Urban | Grassroots efforts by NCSU staff who recognized a local need and organized a response. | Too early to tell. | Unknown - too early to tell. | Unknown - too early to tell. | Micro-scale program - employees recognizing fellow workers who need assistance. | Digital Access and Inclusion Project. Staff Senate. (n.d.). Retrieved April 28, 2023, from https://staffsenate.ncsu.edu/initiatives/digital-access/ | (Digital Access and Inclusion Project Staff Senate, n.d.) | |
| Journal article | Mapping the two levels of digital divide: Internet access and social network site adoption among older adults in the USA | This study utilizes data from the 2012 Health and Retirement Study, which includes a nationally representative sample of Americans aged 50 years and above. The authors investigate the patterns of Internet access (N = 18,851) and adoption of Social Network Sites (N = 869) within this sample, focusing on how these patterns vary across different age groups. | Mapping the two levels of digital divide: Internet access and social network site adoption among older adults in the USA | 2015 | Digital divide, Social network site; Internet access; older adults | Aging populations | Nationwide (USA) | This is a survey review paper. The authors used data from the 2012 HRS, a nationally representative longitudinal survey of Americans over the age of 50 years. The results show that: - Online activities and social network site (SNS) use does not significantly vary by age, but age significantly shapes the relationships between SNS use and employment status, race/ethnicity, and marital status. - "Homemakers, racial/ethnic minorities, and the never married are more likely to use SNSs than their more advantaged counterparts during the early mid-life period, while the odds of SNS use among their advantaged counterparts increasingly rise with age." (p. 14) | Internet and social network site access | The idea of internet access being less of a concern for younger end of eldery adults was pushed back on | A limitation can be using limited data - data from those who took the HRS. One additional limitation of this study relates to the measures used and the quantitative nature of the research. The study employs simple, dichotomous measures to assess Internet and Social Network Sites (SNS) use within the HRS data. However, utilizing more comprehensive measurements of Internet access, such as considering access at home, work, and through public facilities, could provide a deeper understanding of the underlying factors contributing to disparities in Internet adoption among older individuals. By incorporating more nuanced measures, future research can shed light on the mechanisms behind these disparities in the older population. | N/A | The need to research beyond basic access and look at internet outcomes as a measure of equity | Yu, R. P., Ellison, N. B., McCammon, R. J., & Langa, K. M. (2015). Mapping the two levels of digital divide: Internet access and Social Network site adoption among older adults in the USA. Information, Communication & Society, 19(10), 1445–1464. https://doi.org/10.1080/1369118x.2015.1109695 | (Yu et al., 2015) | |
| Program or Initiative | Digital Resilience in the American Workforce: Findings from a National Landscape Scan on Adult Digital Literacy Instruction | "With the urgency of adult digital skill development as a backdrop, the Digital Resilience in the American Workforce (DRAW) initiative, funded by the U.S. Department of Education’s Office of Career, Technical, and Adult Education (OCTAE), conducted a national landscape scan to identify existing resources and effective approaches for digital skills development, skill definitions and frameworks, assessment, and practitioner professional development. This report’s findings will inform the design of forthcoming professional development for adult educators by answering this primary research question: What training resources and approaches are most relevant for educators seeking to increase digital literacy and digital resilience for an adult learner population?" | Digital Resilience in the American Workforce: Findings from a National Landscape Scan on Adult Digital Literacy Instruction | 2022 | Digital equity, Digital literacy, Digital skills, Digital inclusion, Professional development, | Adults and working population | Nationwide (USA) | Addressing the global digital skills divide is a multifaceted challenge that necessitates a collaborative approach involving government, education providers, learners, and employers. Access to technology plays a crucial role in enabling learners to achieve their academic goals, secure employment, and actively participate in civic life. The COVID-19 pandemic has further emphasized the pressing need to prioritize digital access and literacy for adult learners. The DRAW Landscape Scan has identified valuable resources and approaches to enhance digital literacy among adult learners, but additional investments, particularly in assessment and employer engagement, are required. Furthermore, robust and comprehensive professional development for adult education professionals is crucial to meet this demand. In the upcoming phase of DRAW, we are committed to sharing our findings with the adult education community through publicly available reports, resources, and opportunities for professional development. | N/A | Assessment and employer engagement along with comprehensive professional development for adults (including the instructors and coaches) were lacking in resources across the national landscape | Lack of resources and attention to these pieces of digital equity | DRAW (from US Department of Education) will continue to share these results and raise awareness of how to increase digital equity in the US | Some recommendations: "- Defining digital skills and resilience for employees - Advancing digital inclusion and equity, including improving access to the Internet (Community partnerships for recruitment, digital navigator services for just-in-time and flexible help and support, learning lounges, learning circles, remote instruction, workplace instructions) - Effective instructional approaches and practices (integrating digital literacy into other skills instruction, meeting the diverse needs of learners) - Digital skill content and curriculum (The adult education field needs content that develops digital resilience, integrates deeper learning, and provides culturally relevant and adaptable resources. New digital literacy solutions and media literacy resources are also necessary, along with resources to prepare learners for technology use in the workplace. Investments in trusted literacy providers are needed to meet a variety of learner needs.) - Assessing and validating digital skills (e.g., the Northstar Digital Literacy Assessment) - Professional development for practitioners " (p.6) | Pleasants McDonnell, R., Fraser, S., & Sullivan, F. (2022, August 15). Digital Resilience in the American workforce: Findings from a National Landscape Scan on Adult Digital Literacy instruction. Jobs for the Future (JFF). Retrieved April 28, 2023, from https://www.jff.org/resources/digital-resilience-in-the-american-workforce-landscape-scan/ | (Pleasants McDonnell et al., 2022) | |
| Journal article | Disconnected in a pandemic: COVID-19 outcomes and the digital divide in the United States | "The COVID-19 pandemic has exacerbated inequalities related to the digital divide. With wide adoption of remote working and learning, telehealth, and virtual events and social activities, the technology have-nots and know-nots experienced substantial marginalization and elevated risks of COVID-19 exposure in daily lives. This study discusses the pathways through which digital exclusion could aggravate the impacts of the pandemic and explored the linkage between digital access and COVID-19 outcomes in U.S. counties. It finds that counties with higher percentages of digitally excluded populations have seen higher COVID-19 case and death rates throughout the pandemic and lower vaccination rates by January 2022. " (Abstract) | Disconnected in a pandemic: COVID-19 outcomes and the digital divide in the United States | 2022 | Digital divide, Internet access, Digital exclusion, Health disparities, COVID-19 | General public | Nationwide (USA) | The article highlights the impact of digital exclusion on the COVID-19 pandemic, emphasizing its contribution to higher incidence and mortality rates, as well as lower vaccination rates, resulting in increased vulnerability to future waves. The study examines the correlation between the percentage of digitally excluded population in counties and their respective COVID-19 case and death rates throughout the pandemic. It also explores the connection between digital exclusion and lower vaccination rates by late 2021 and early 2022. Through a proposed theoretical framework, the study elucidates the pathways through which digital exclusion can lead to these disparities. Furthermore, the article calls upon governments, public health agencies, and healthcare providers to acknowledge the significant implications of digital exclusion and marginalization during a pandemic. It urges the allocation of targeted efforts and resources to support digitally disadvantaged individuals and communities. | N/A | N/A | The article had a few limitations. Firstly, the study was limited by data availability and could not account for different levels of testing or inconsistencies in reporting COVID-19 cases or deaths. Secondly, the study could not pinpoint which of the five predicted pathways played a more important role in shaping the linkage between the digital divide and COVID-19 outcomes. Thirdly, the study was conducted on a county-level and cannot be generalized to other geographical areas. Finally, the study did not analyze the impact of other factors, such as climate or pre-existing health conditions, which could also have contributed to the COVID-19 outcomes. | Highlights from the study: - Insufficient access to the Internet and digital technologies has the potential to worsen the consequences of the COVID-19 pandemic through various channels. - As the COVID-19 pandemic persists, counties in the United States with inadequate home Internet or computer access experience elevated rates of COVID-19 cases and deaths. - Scarce availability of broadband Internet correlates with a slower initial rollout of vaccinations and lower overall vaccination rates. | N/A | Li, F. (2022). Disconnected in a pandemic: Covid-19 outcomes and the digital divide in the United States. Health & Place, 77. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.healthplace.2022.102867 | (Li, 2022) | |
| Program or Initiative, Journal article | Community-led digital literacy training: Toward a conceptual framework | This exploratory study aimed to examine the factors influencing digital literacy training provided by local community organizations, specifically focusing on public libraries. The investigation utilized a theoretical framework derived from the educational assessment and information literacy instruction literatures, community informatics, and situated learning theory. The research involved conducting case studies at two public libraries and five other local community organizations. Data collection encompassed one-on-one interviews with administrators, instructors, and community members who received training, analysis of training documents, observations of training sessions, and a survey administered to clients who participated in these training sessions. | Community-led digital literacy training: Toward a conceptual framework | 2022 | Digital literacy, Digital skills, Digital upskilling | Aging populations, Administrators from public libraries and local organizations (n=14), end users (youth and seniors (n=23) | International | Urban | The training was found to be effective in increasing participants' confidence in their digital skills, ability to apply the skills they learned from the training, and interest in pursuing further digital literacy training. Additionally, participants reported improved social inclusion due to increased access to services. | Interviews (qualitative study) | Under funded project, lack of marketing to get the message out | - It was not long-term because of the funding limitations. - Also, the timing of training was an issue because of lack of staff or attendees, and conflicting schedules. | N/A | The need to organize and train staff, acquire sustainable funding, reach marginalized populations, offer convenient training times to end-users, better market the training, share and adopt best practices, and better collect and analyze program performance measurement data | Detlor, B., Julien, H., La Rose, T., & Serenko, A. (2022). Community‐led digital literacy training: Toward a conceptual framework. Journal of the Association for Information Science and Technology, 73(10), 1387–1400. https://doi.org/10.1002/asi.24639 | (Detlor et al., 2022) |
| Project report | Digital Equity in the time of COVID-19: The Access Issue | This report is part of a series focusing on digital equity during the COVID-19 pandemic, authored by members of the MERC (Metropolitan Educational Research Consortium) SY20 study team. The SY20 project was initiated by MERC to provide rapid response and iterative research, aiming to address the immediate and ongoing needs of school divisions in Chesterfield, Goochland, Hanover, Henrico, Petersburg, Powhatan, and Richmond. The project is guided by the following objectives: 1) Facilitating discussions between scholars and practitioners on critical topics in public education that are relevant to the current context, 2) Sharing local initiatives that exemplify innovation and best practices, and 3) Encouraging community engagement and dialogue by widely disseminating our work. | Digital Equity in the time of COVID-19: The Access Issue | 2020 | Digital equity, Digital divide, Broadband access | Rural residents, English learners/not native speakers, Racial or ethnic minorities | Other state(s) | Mix | Ensuring internet access as a moral human right entails unmonitored and uncensored availability of this global medium, which should be publicly provided free of charge for those unable to afford it. - The digital divide represents more than just a matter of distributive justice; it serves as a reflection of social and economic marginalization, exacerbated by policies and practices that further disenfranchise impoverished and working-class individuals. - Recognizing that access to technology is not a static concept is crucial, as access itself is fluid and subject to change. - Promoting a more equitable society cannot be achieved solely through digital education or broadband access in isolation; a comprehensive approach is required. - Foster critical engagement among individuals and groups concerning issues of social significance and value, as well as the role of new technologies, to foster the creation of a more equitable society. Additionally, the project represented that among the selected regions, "White students are more likely to live in rural areas where physical access to reliable internet is an issue while Black students are more likely to live in urban areas where financial access is an issue." (p. 10) | Success in digital equity is more than a "static" state as many lower income families after getting connection might lose it due to not being able to pay the bill. | Simply providing internet access or a training will not fix centuries long inequities and exclusion in society, we must continue to look towards more comprehensive way to stregthen equity as a society and not become too focused on providing internet access to fix a lot of problems | Poor digital equity in a country can be linked to not believing that digital access should be considered a public good at this point as so many basic human rights are now connected to being able to use the internet | N/A | State government can enact policies to help complement federal resources in digital equity (i.e. Commonwealth Connect in Virginia), 1:1 computing ratios for kids in schools, and local governments should partner with companies to help close digital divides. | Becker, J., Washington, J., Naff, D., Woodard, A., & Rhodes, J. (2020). Digital equity in the time of COVID: The access issue. Richmond, VA: Metropolitan Educational Research Consortium. | (Becker et al., 2020) |
| Program or Initiative, Journal article | Taking a Lead on Digital Literacy for Students - A Case Study from the Library at the University of Limerick | "This study will provide some inspiration and practical insights to academic libraries and educators within tertiary education who wish to experiment with digital upskilling programs in their institutions. This study provides a blueprint for academic libraries who wish to develop or collaborate on digital skills programs and reflects on how a refresh of library workshops to emphasize digital literacy skills can not only meet the contemporary learning needs of their students but also boost the attendance at other, more traditional library workshops." (Abstract) | Taking a Lead on Digital Literacy for Students - A Case Study from the Library at the University of Limerick | 2022 | Digital literacy, Digital skills, Digital upskilling, Information literacy; academic libraries; academic skills; student skills development; student success; university; higher education | Higher Ed students | Limerick, Ireland | The pilot series of digital skills workshops conducted by the library at the University of Limerick has confirmed a significant demand for digital skills training among students. It has been observed that students are seeking more opportunities for digital skills training, covering a broader range of topics. The attendance rate for these workshops has also shown an increase when compared to in-person sessions, indicating a positive response from students. In light of these findings, it is crucial to meet the growing demand from students and continue providing digital skills training to enhance their digital literacy. | Survey | N/A | The study did not compare similar workshops from previous years and the workshops were not aligned with academic objectives or assessed for credit. While the feedback from focus groups was positive, there is a risk of participants saying what they think the organizers want to hear. | N/A | Academic libraries have a unique opportunity during the COVID-19 pandemic to establish sustainable plans for online education on digital literacy and information skills. | Breen, M., Waters, J., & O’Shea, L. (2022). Taking a lead on digital literacy for students—a case study from the library at the University of Limerick. New Review of Academic Librarianship, 29(1), 11–32. https://doi.org/10.1080/13614533.2022.2039243 | (Breen et al., 2022) | |
| Website, Report | Delivering on the Promise of Digital Equity | The United States is currently undergoing a significant digital transformation in its economy and society. However, access to broadband and devices, as well as digital skills, remains a significant barrier for too many Americans, preventing them from fully participating in this transformation. This includes individuals of all ages and backgrounds, such as elementary school students living in public housing, low-income families employed in distribution centers, and elderly individuals living far from medical services. The IIJA presents a critical and unprecedented opportunity to bridge this digital divide and promote greater equity and participation in American life for all. | Delivering on the Promise of Digital Equity | 2022 | Digital equity, Digital literacy, Digital skills, Digital divide | Rural residents, English learners/not native speakers, Racial or ethnic minorities, K-12 students and teacher and leader workforce | Other state(s) | "Build and sustain systems and infrastructure to ensure all students have constant, reliable access: - Remove barriers to affordable broadband - Leverage national and state-level broadband programs to close equity gaps in connectivity and device procurement - Create or revise long-term edtech plans to provide equitable access and sustainable systems Upskill the K-12 teacher and leader workforce: - Establish digital skill and digital use competencies for K-12 graduates and educators - Design professional learning opportunities that increase educators’ digital skills and digital use competencies - Charge a task force to create a statewide plan to upskill the K-12 educator workforce Upskill students, parents, families, and caregivers: - Utilize local groups to convene underrepresented populations and gather information - Scale up community-based efforts to develop the digital skills of students and parents/caregivers - Create task forces inclusive of underrepresented communities to influence state and local plans" (p. 18) | Access to internet and digital skills | N/A | N/A | N/A | K-12 education should be a key focus of digital equity efforts to help close future divides in the US | Weaver, D. J. (2022, December). Delivering on the promise of digital equity. Digital Promise. https://doi.org/10.51388/20.500.12265/166 | (Weaver, 2022) | |
| Website, Program or Initiative | Using Data To Advance Digital Skills: A State Playbook | "To assist states in closing digital skill gaps and preparing for digital equity planning, this brief guide offers key questions and resources for state leaders to consider. It is a product of the National Governors Association (NGA) Workforce Innovation Network, an initiative of the NGA Workforce Development and Economic Policy Program." | Using Data To Advance Digital Skills: A State Playbook | 2022 | Digital equity, Digital literacy, Digital skills, Digital navigation/navigators, Digital divide, Digital inclusion | Veterans, Rural residents, English learners/not native speakers, Racial or ethnic minorities, Incarcerated individuals, Low income populations | Nationwide (USA) | This brief uses data to advance digital skills based results used all throughout the country. It is defined in 5 parts- What do states need to collect?, How can states collect and use data?, Using data for storytelling, Connecting Digital Skills Data to State Workforce and Education Goals, and Emerging Practices in Digital Skills Data Collection. Each portion reviews data from commonly used datasets to measure digital literacy, skill demands, and identifying priority populations to provide this service. Also providing supplemental skill assessments and skills beyond the workforce. | Success in this association was defined as looking through the progress most states can make for digital equity and possible policy change. | N/A | N/A | The U.S. Program for the International Assessment of Adult Competence Skils Map measure unemployed indiviuals, those who are/not in the labor market, and those employes with certain cognitive and workplace skills. | There are important guiding questions on what data do states need to colect in this process or determine what to measure. States should provide data thart nonprofit organizations can use to exapand digital literacy. Measuring changes of employer demands based on digital skills. | National Governors Association. (2022). Using Data To Advance Digital Skills: A State Playbook. https://www.nga.org/publications/using-data-to-advance-digital-skills-a-state-playbook/ | (National Governors Association, 2022) | |
| Journal article | Digital equity and accessible MOOCs: Accessibility evaluations of mobile MOOCs for learners with visual impairments | This study suggests that current MOOC platforms may not be accessible and inclusive for learners with disabilities, despite claims that they can democratize educational opportunities. The authors conducted a two-phase study, with phase I consisting of a usability test with three visually impaired unv students, and phase II consisting of a heuristic walkthrough with five evaluators based on Web Content Accessibility Guidelines 2.0. | Digital equity and accessible MOOCs: Accessibility evaluations of mobile MOOCs for learners with visual impairments | 2019 | Digital equity, MOOCs, learners with visual impairments, universal design for learning, accessibility, mobile learning | People with disabilities, Learners with visual impairments | International | This study provides empirical evidence of certain user requirements, which will aid in designing more inclusive and accessible MOOCs. "Implication recommendations for practice or policy: • To make MOOCs accessible to learners with visual impairment, MOOC platforms need to provide auto-translation and downloadable lectures with subtitles. • Efforts should be devoted to providing alternative texts for non-text content media and information on the current state in hidden menu elements. • The use of bypass buttons can help learners with visual impairment better access repetitive information. • This study recommends improving the accessibility of MOOCs based on the universal design for learning principles." (p. 48) | Usability testing with learners with visual impairments to identify learner needs and reveal MOOCs' accessibility issues that helped with defining possible implications for practice and policy. | N/A | N/A | N/A | Further research should be conducted to assess the accessibility of mobile applications. Additionally, future studies should consider the complexities and variations present in MOOC platforms, the varying skill levels of users, and the potential use of user agent applications like VoiceOver. | Park, K., So, H.-J., & Cha, H. (2019). Digital Equity and accessible moocs: Accessibility Evaluations of Mobile moocs for learners with visual impairments. Australasian Journal of Educational Technology, 35(6), 48–63. https://doi.org/10.14742/ajet.5521 | (Park et al., 2019) | |
| Program or Initiative | Distance Learning During COVID-19: 7 Equity considerationsfor schools and districts | This brief presents actions that has been/can be taken to bridge the digital inequality gap with examples from counties in the Southern states. - WiFi and Internet access - Equipment rentals and Distribution - Print materials and instructional television - Special needs and ELL support - District and community assistance resources - Professional development support - Tech tools - Mental and emotional health services - Parent resources | Distance Learning During COVID-19: 7 Equity considerations for schools and districts | 2020 | Digital equity, digital disparities | Rural residents, People with disabilities, English learners/not native speakers, Racial or ethnic minorities, Low income populations, | Southern states | School districts' approaches to distance learning and implementations: - Equipment rentals and distributions - WiFi and Internet access - Print materials and instructional television - Special needs and ELL support - District and community assistance resources - Professional development and support - Tech tools - Mental and emotional health services - Parent resources | Access to internet and technology for students; wraparound support services for most disadvantaged students who need it | N/A | N/A | Southern Education Foundation will continue to push forward equity in school digital access | Personal thought: If these implications were consistently implemented nationwide or made mandatory, they would significantly contribute to bridging the digital equity gap. | Tinubu Ali , T., & Herrera, M. (2020, April). Distance Learning During COVID-19: 7 Equity Considerations for Schools and Districts. Southern Education Foundation. Retrieved April 28, 2023, from https://southerneducation.org/publications/covid-19-digital-equity/ | (Tinubu Ali & Herrera, 2020) | |
| Journal article | Exploring Digital Literacy Strategies for Students with Special Educational Needs in the Digital Age | This paper examines the application of digital literacy skills to enhance teaching and learning strategies for Special Needs Students (SNS) in Malaysia, as perceived by teachers. The digital literacy skills model encompasses cognitive skills, technology, and ethics, serving as a foundational framework for exploring effective digital literacy teaching and learning strategies for SNS. As a preliminary study, the concept was tested through interviews with five teachers who conducted a Desktop Publishing course for SNS. The findings indicate that the digital literacy skills model has the potential to enhance teaching and learning strategies in the digital environment for SNS, demonstrating its value and efficacy. | Exploring Digital Literacy Strategies for Students with Special Educational Needs in the Digital Age | 2021 | Digital literacy, Digital Literacy Skills, Special Education, Special Needs Students, Learning Strategies | People with disabilities | Malaysia | The study shows that applying Calvani's principle of digital literacy would be effective for learners with different needs. This paper contributes to the improvement and implementation of digital literacy in special education schools which aligns with the Malaysia Education Blueprint 2013 – 2025. It provides an overall perspective to improve policies for the betterment of 21st century teaching and learning strategies of special needs students and teachers. Calvani, A., Cartelli, A., Fini, A., & Ranieri, M. (2008). Models and Instruments for Assessing Digital Competence at School, 4 (September 2008), 183–193. | "Based on the preliminary findings, teachers claimed that flexibility and creativity are needed to increase SNS's commitment to learning." (p.3351) | Teachers need to develop their own digital skills to then help students, schools need to invest in more moral support to help support special need students | N/A | N/A | "From previous literature and preliminary findings with five teachers, three main areas of digital literacy skills (cognitive, technology and ethical) by Calvani et al. that are used to develop a three-dimensional conceptual model for technical skills were chosen as the main domains in the teaching strategies that will be applied to SNS." (p. 3351) My thoughts: Integrating a strategy focusing on these three areas can help with addressing the needs of SNS as well as learners with poor digital literacy skills. | Toha Tohara, A. J., Shuhidan, S. M., Saiful Bahry, F. D., & bin Nordin, M. N. (2021, April). Exploring Digital Literacy Strategies for students with special educational needs in the Digital age. Turkish Journal of Computer and Mathematics Education (TURCOMAT). Retrieved April 28, 2023, from https://turcomat.org/index.php/turkbilmat/article/view/5741 | (Toha Tohara et al., 2021) | |
| Journal article | Research on vulnerable people and digital inclusion: toward a consolidated taxonomical framework | Systematic review study The authors state, "We first need to understand and clearly define the phenomenon of vulnerable people, and how digital inclusion could represent an asset to help vulnerable people to bridge inequalities." They answered the following RQs: 1: What vulnerable community is the most likely to be excluded or marginalized from the digital realm? 2: What are the main sources of vulnerability? 3: What solutions are proposed by literature to assist vulnerable people? They observed a lack of research concerning digital inclusion and other significant vulnerable communities, such as refugees, the unemployed, single parent households and LGTBI individuals. | Research on vulnerable people and digital inclusion: toward a consolidated taxonomical framework | 2022 | Digital inclusion, Inequalities · Minority communities · Systematic review · Vulnerabilities · Vulnerable people | People with disabilities, Racial or ethnic minorities, Aging populations, Low income populations | "Situational factors, like technological possibilities, are relevant to foster the digital inclusion of vulnerable people, but the absence of these conditions is not the only cause that explains the digital divide, personal, dispositional, generational and cultural variables are also important. Therefore, it is not only necessary to develop projects that guarantee universal access to these technologies but also campaigns to raise awareness and education that overcome the possibility of lack of interest, motivation and knowledge on the part of vulnerable people." | Systematic review of 331 articles | There is no commonly agreed typology framework, and specific categorization criteria as a basis to assist the further investigation of the area | N/A | N/A | The paper generated common terminology and a framework to allow researchers across disciplines to use a common language in talking about digital equity research | Pérez-Escolar, M., & Canet, F. (2022). Research on vulnerable people and Digital Inclusion: Toward a consolidated taxonomical framework. Universal Access in the Information Society. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10209-022-00867-x | (Pérez-Escolar & Canet, 2022) | ||
| Journal article | Digital Literacy, Access to Technology and Inclusion for Young Adults with Developmental Disabilities | This article is a scoping review that examines the barriers to access and utilization of digital technology to support the transition stage needs of young adults with developmental disabilities. The authors identified 29 studies that met the inclusion criteria and found that barriers to access and utilization included training, affordability, availability, infrastructure, design, lack of fit with needs, access to community activities, literacy, and accommodations. They applied a socio-ecological approach to interpreting the findings and highlighted the importance of facilitators for promoting digital inclusion of young adults with developmental disabilities. | Digital Literacy, Access to Technology and Inclusion for Young Adults with Developmental Disabilities | 2021 | Digital inclusion, Technology. Developmental disabilities. Young adults. Access. Scoping review | People with disabilities, Young adults with developmental disabilities | N/A | The studies reviewed examined digital technology's potential to improve transition outcomes for young adults with developmental disabilities in the domains of education, daily living, community integration, and employment. The studies included a mix of qualitative and quantitative methods, and various types of digital technology were used, such as laptop programs, internet sites, adaptive assistive devices, cell phone applications, and tablets/iPad/iPod applications. Additionally, digital inclusion is needed for social inclusion for individuals with disabilities. | N/A | The review revealed what was missing in terms of implementation: Inadequate training and support for teachers and parents, unaffordability of equipment, and inadequate technology support services from secondary to post-secondary settings can result in users abandoning equipment, losing motivation, and being unable to participate in community activities. | N/A | N/A | By facilitating access to and utilization of affordable digital technology, implementing user-friendly systems and platforms, training support personnel, and offering technology support in educational institutions, communities, and workplaces, we can enhance the education, daily living, community integration, and employment opportunities of young adults with developmental disabilities. | Khanlou, N., Khan, A., Vazquez, L. M., & Zangeneh, M. (2020). Digital Literacy, access to technology and inclusion for young adults with developmental disabilities. Journal of Developmental and Physical Disabilities, 33(1), 1–25. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10882-020-09738-w | (Khanlou et al., 2020) | |
| Dissertation | Parent Perceptions of School Engagement Using Communication Apps to Support Struggling Readers | Looked at parent perceptions of using a school communication app at a Title I middle school | Parent Perceptions of School Engagement Using Communication Apps to Support Struggling Readers | 2022 | Digital equity, Digital literacy, Digital skills, Digital inclusion | Racial or ethnic minorities, Low income populations | Nationwide (USA) | Urban | "This study indicated that parents of struggling readers in an urban Title I middle school are not only aware of ICT apps but that they perceive them as a necessity for connecting with the school and with other parents to support their school engagement. Further, parents unanimously prioritized two-way cell phone SMS and app- based communication with the school. " (p. 82) | Schools should use ICT apps, but simplify them, low income families in this school setting did prefer the app-based communication | Dewhurst, E. A. M. (2022). Parent Perceptions of School Engagement Using Communication Apps to Support Struggling Readers (Order No. 29168070). Available from ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Global. (2662750138). https://proxying.lib.ncsu.edu/index.php/login?url=https://www.proquest.com/dissertations-theses/parent-perceptions-school-engagement-using/docview/2662750138/se-2 | (Dewhurst, 2022) | ||||
| Journal article | Early childhood education and care in the app generation: Digital documentation, assessment for learning and parent communication | Reviewed the literature of parent communication apps with an eye towards equity of the intervention | Early childhood education and care in the app generation: Digital documentation, assessment for learning and parent communication | 2021 | Digital equity, Digital skills, Digital divide, Digital inclusion | N/A | International | It does generally increase communication between parents and teachers, although many studies find while parents view the messages, the often do not engage in any two-way communication back with the teacher | It increases workload on teachers, confuses effective communication to help the child / family with it just being more promotional marketing on behalf of the preschool. Concerns of equity including some families not wanting to use app, unable to use app, mothers using it more than fathers, it can bias the educator opinion against families that have low engagement with the app. | It is widespread in preschool work to use these apps between parents and teachers but some major gaps in the literature, namely no research on parents who are not using the app to understand why they aren't using the apps | Stratigos, T., & Fenech, M. (2020). Early childhood education and care in the APP GENERATION: Digital Documentation, assessment for learning and parent communication. Australasian Journal of Early Childhood, 46(1), 19–31. https://doi.org/10.1177/1836939120979062 | (Stratigos & Fenech, 2020) | ||||
| Journal article | Plans and Interventions of South African Grade 1 Educators during the 2020 Lockdown Period | Interviewed teachers in South Africa over online teaching in early days of Covid pandemic | Plans and Interventions of South African Grade 1 Educators during the 2020 Lockdown Period | 2021 | Digital equity, Digital skills, Digital divide, Digital inclusion | N/A | International | Quick and timely communication with parents helped with online engagement - in this sample using Whatsapp to communicate was effective. | Parent engagement - for younger learners success relied heavily upon parent engagement in the process and some parents were unwilling or unable to help their child through virtual schooling. Other research was cited in several countries that parents were unable to help their kids with online school due to lack of technological ability. | Inadequate level of engagement by parents could be grouped into i) technological and socioeconomic issues such as outdated or inadequate devices and lack of data; ii) communication challenges; including a lack of understanding of the assignment or due to the language barrier, and iii) parents’ own work load that prevented them from spending more time on their children’s learning. | Grobler, A. (2021). Plans and interventions of South African Grade 1 educators during the 2020 lockdown period. Research in Social Sciences and Technology, 6(3), 163-178. https://eric.ed.gov/?id=EJ1335680 | (Grobler, 2021) | ||||
| report | Technology in Early Education Building Platforms for Connections and Content that Strengthen Families and Promote Success in School | Provided recommendations for state governments to close digital divide in early learning settings - in homes with young children, mobile device use, still watching television, big consumers of technology. Talk about teacher training, library partnerships, and building tech platforms for young learners. | Technology in Early Education Building Platforms for Connections and Content that Strengthen Families and Promote Success in School | 2012 | Digital equity, Digital divide | Low income populations | Nationwide (USA) | Libraries can be a key leverage point for connecting digital access and training to preschool families. Libraries are often not included in early childhood education councils. Teacher effectiveness can be a key part, including state-led decisions to incorporate digital literacy into B-K licensing system. Having professional development for early childhood educators to learn how to incorporate technology into classroom is important. | Preschool centers are in-eligible for "e-rate" federal discount (other schools and libraries are given this discount on internet access). | Providing training for teachers of the young, but also for families. | Guernsey, L. (2012, July 31). Technology in early education: Building platforms for connections and content that strengthen families and promote success in school. Education Commission of the States (NJ3). Retrieved May 5, 2023, from https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED534183 | (Guernsey, 2012) | ||||
| Program or Initiative | Family Activity Initiative | Launched in Massachusetts to provide resources and content to families during early days of Covid lockdowns | Family Activity Center Home | 2020 | Digital equity, Digital literacy, Digital upskilling, Digital navigation/navigators, Digital divide, Digital inclusion | Rural residents, People with low literacy, English learners/not native speakers, Racial or ethnic minorities, Low income populations | Other state(s) | They had a raffle every week to incentivize use of the program, they tapped into a network for nonprofit organizations to have them print out the resources and deliver to families that have little network connectivity so they weren't excluded from the resources. They had a heavy social media campaign to get the word out. | WGBH. (n.d.). Family activities. Retrieved from https://www.wgbh.org/distance-learning-center/family-activities | (WGBH, n.d.) | ||||||
| Program or Initiative | 2012 Context Study of the Use of Technology and PBS KIDS Transmedia in the Home Environment: A Report to the CPB-PBS "Ready to Learn Initiative" | CPB-PBS Ready To Learn initiatinded by the U. S. Department of Education, brings engaging, high-quality media to young children who may be at risk for academic difficulties due to economic and social disadvantages. The initiative aims to deliver early mathematics and literacy resources on new and emerging digital platforms such as tablet computers, interactive whiteboards (IWBs), and smartphones, as well as better-established technologies such as computers, video displays, and gaming consoles, and to create learning experiences that leverage the unique capabilities of these various technology platforms | 2012 Context Study of the Use of Technology and PBS KIDS Transmedia in the Home Environment: A Report to the CPB-PBS "Ready to Learn Initiative" | 2012 | Digital literacy, Digital skills, Digital inclusion | Rural residents, People with low literacy, Low income populations | Nationwide (USA) | "During the study, families were provided with a laptop and iPad, along with suggestions of PBS KIDS resources to explore during the study. Families made extensive use of the technology and generally had positive feedback on the PBS KIDS resources they used. Parents suggested that with the addition of the two devices, technology-use patterns shifted to some degree, with children spending less time watching television and more time playing online games or apps. Parents, too, had more time with technology, with more devices to go around, and in some cases, parents reported more interaction with their children around technology use. These interactions, though, remained largely superficial, suggesting that parents need more guidance in this area. Also challenging for parents is maintaining balance in children’s technology use. They want to harness its power for learning, but they are concerned about overuse and have difficulty maintaining limits on its use during their busy days. Below, we describe what we observed and what families reported about how technology fits into their lives." (p. 12) | "Design for low-income households where parents may have had fewer experiences navigating information and educational resources for themselves as well as for their children. This approach will be especially important in the development of the PBS KIDS parent app and PBS KIDS progress tracker, which may be tempted to start from design conventions that make assumptions based on middle-class parenting norms. Appropriate design for this target audience will involve much more than lower-level text literacy; it also takes scaffolding parents’ understanding of the learning goals associated with particular transmedia, the ways parents can support their children’s learning, how parents can assess whether learning is happening, and whether particular transmedia are appropriate for their child, and what to do if they are not." (p.35) | Pasnik, S., & Llorente, C. (2012). 2012 Context Study of the Use of Technology and PBS KIDS Transmedia in the Home Environment: A Report to the CPB-PBS" Ready to Learn Initiative". Education Development Center, Inc. | (Pasnik & LIorente, 2012) | |||||
| Website, Program or Initiative | State Digital Equity Planning Grant Program: Internet for All | The Digital Equity Act provides $2.75 billion to establish three grant programs that promote digital equity and inclusion. They aim to ensure that all people and communities have the skills, technology, and capacity needed to reap the full benefits of our digital economy. States can apply for the digital equity grant program and receive funding for these inclusive initiatives. | State Digital Equity Planning Grant Program: Internet for All | 2022 | Digital equity, Digital literacy, Digital skills, Digital upskilling, Digital navigation/navigators, Digital divide, Digital inclusion | Veterans, Rural residents, People with disabilities, English learners/not native speakers, Racial or ethnic minorities, Aging populations, Incarcerated individuals, Low income populations | Nationwide (USA) | The world's most second evolved digital access initiative in the economy. The funding for the initiative draws from an unprecedented $65 billion sum from the bipartisan Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act earmarked for the purpose of closing the digital divide. | This was measures by the state's infrastructure and uses for these funds. They must provide data and proven change (as much as possible). | Guaranteed allocation of resources may not be efficient. On the application and process the program is covering miles more than communities/households. Coordination and implementations on this program may need more support. | Proper execution of the program to correctly distribute all the funds and coordination. | This organization is still an ongoing opportunity for expansion. | Creating an inclusive digital literacy course for customers and consumers of internet based products. | Internet For All. (2022). State Digital Equity Planning Grant Program. https://www.internetforall.gov/program/state-digital-equity-planning-grant-program | (Interenet For All, 2022) | |
| Program or Initiative, ASR Analytics: National Telecommunications and Information Administration | ASR Analytics: National Telecommunications and Information Administration | A comprehensive case study report on One Community in Ohio. One community is a nonprofit organization that seeks to expedite more informational technologies for health, education, and government services. This case study is to identify the maximization of digital literacy to the Broadband Technology Opportunities Program (BTOP), successful tools used, and impact of the ways these funded projects work in the community. | National Telecommunications and Information Administration - Broadband Technology Opportunities Program Evaluation Study | 2014 | Digital skills, Digital divide, Digital inclusion | Rural residents, English learners/not native speakers, Racial or ethnic minorities, Low income populations | Other state(s) | Suburban and Rural | Once community works with the majority of data centers in Ohio, customers can select their needs on broadband internet and which fits their best network design. This community also helps customers in rural communities and familiarize with network services offered. | Community Anchor Institutions (CAI) such as libraries, schools, hospitals, or public safety facilities in partnership with One Community would work with and funded by BTOP will interview, survey, and gather information. Success is measured by the tools and techniques used like bandwidth and network reliability for customers. | Understaffing for utility poles and expanding networks in rural areas, there was not an initial firm list of CAI's, and increasing wages efforts for workers who want to increase broadband connectivity. | Wage gaps for workers in broadband connectivity. | There are similar case studies in the ASR Analytics report for other states and organizations. | Community outreach using Community Anchor Institutions and giving customers options for networks. | National Telecommunications and Information Administration. (2010). OneCommunity case study report (Order Number D10PD18645). Retrieved from https://www2.ntia.doc.gov/files/onecommunity_case_study_report_order_number_d10pd18645.pdf | (National Telecommunications and Information Administration, 2010). |
| Journal article | An action research case study: digital equity and educational inclusion during an emergent COVID-19 divide | "This paper aims to share responses from current literature, a small case study about perceptions and practices of the school of education faculty toward multicultural and educational issues concerning the rapid rise in online environments during coronavirus (COVID-19) experiences and just-in-time strategies for addressing digital equity and educational inclusion in K-16 online educational settings. Central issues explored practices related to language, technology access, curriculum design and technological competencies and assessment. A driving question was: How do institutions, schools or educators provide learning opportunities to support digital equity and inclusive education practice to maintain and strengthen relationships and core practices of multicultural education during a time of physical distancing during COVID-19? And what are the experiences, barriers, successes?" (p. 68) | An action research case study: digital equity and educational inclusion during an emergent COVID-19 divide | 2020 | Digital equity, Digital skills, Digital divide, Digital inclusion | English learners/not native speakers | Nationwide (USA) | The study explores practices that arose from original action research conducted by four faculty members in a school of education. Their diverse backgrounds led to the identification of multiple themes related to the COVID-19 pandemic. The mental health of students and faculty emerged as a key consideration during the shift to online learning, with deliberate and frequent communication being vital. Providing a voice for all stakeholders played a crucial role in rapidly transforming instructional methods. The study also examines the role of technology, an essential aspect of online learning. While some individuals had easy access and proficiency, others faced challenges in terms of accessibility and availability, highlighting broader issues of equity and access. | Methodological limitations that influenced the research design encompassed conducting the study solely in a virtual environment, having a small sample size, limited diversity in curriculum content, and using only one research site. Data collection was restricted to written responses obtained from the participating faculty members. Furthermore, this action research study was conducted within a four-month timeframe, constrained by the prevailing COVID-19 conditions. | Five strategies have emerged: 1 - Developing new curricula in global education, focusing on new migrant populations. 2 - Enhancing the skills of educational leaders and teachers in language pedagogy, policy, and area studies. 3 - Utilizing new technologies and broadband to expand global training and professional development networks for schools and communities serving diverse and new immigrant populations. 4 - Collaborating with faculty specializing in teacher education, language, and literacy to promote teachers' intercultural competency and language proficiency, aiming to create innovative and inclusive globalized learning environments. 5 - Employing creative needs assessments and evaluations to design learning environments and curricula, as well as social-emotional support systems, to address the mental health needs of learners in online education resulting from the disruption of traditional educational approaches caused by the COVID-19 pandemic. | Pittman, J., Severino, L., DeCarlo-Tecce, M. J., & Kiosoglous, C. (2021). An action research case study: Digital Equity and Educational Inclusion during an emergent COVID-19 divide. Journal for Multicultural Education, 15(1), 68–84. https://doi.org/10.1108/jme-09-2020-0099 | (Pittman et al., 2021) | ||||
| Program or Initiative | Connecting to learn: promoting digital equity for america’s hispanic families | This policy brief explores a digital equity policy approach based on recent research with low-income Hispanic families in the U.S. It emphasizes the importance of understanding the connections between learning and development across different levels, including family, community, and macro-systems. The authors recommend leveraging the strengths of low-income families to promote meaningful digital participation for all families. The brief offers an ecological perspective on the influence of digital media technologies on children's learning and development and shares key findings from a qualitative study of the Connect2Compete digital equity program. This program, implemented by the Federal Communications Commission and private industry partners, aims to bridge the digital divide and ensure equitable access to digital resources. | Connecting to Learn: Promoting Digital Equity Among America's Hispanic Families | 2015 | Digital equity, Digital divide | Racial or ethnic minorities, Low income populations | Nationwide (USA) | In 2013, Vikki Katz conducted a multi-site study funded by the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation to examine the implementation of the national digital equity initiative called Connect2Compete. This initiative aims to expand home broadband access for families with school-age children and is the only nationwide effort of its kind. Connect2Compete was established as part of the United States' 2010 National Broadband Plan, with the goal of providing affordable broadband service ($9.95/m), discounted computers, and free skills training to eligible families. It operates through a public-private partnership, with local telecommunications companies offering discounted broadband access and additional resources in certain areas. | The brief used a recent national survey conducted with 1577 parents (with children ages 2 to 10) and 682 of them were Hispanic. To see the survey results, please visit the paper, p. 17 and p. 18. | Digital equity programs must actively involve parents, building their familiarity and confidence with digital platforms. Simply adopting technology without consideration excludes parents, hindering their support for their children's education. Program designers should provide technologies to low-income parents and develop two-generation digital learning models. Equipping parents with digital tools at home enhances lifelong learning and economic security, benefiting both parents and children. To better support parents in using media to foster their child's learning, it is important to provide more resources in Spanish and increase awareness of where these resources can be accessed. | Katz, V. S., & Levine, M. H. (2015). Connecting to learn: Promoting Digital Equity for America’s Hispanic families. https://joanganzcooneycenter.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/03/jgcc_connectingtolearn.pdf. Retrieved May 2, 2023, from https://joanganzcooneycenter.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/03/jgcc_connectingtolearn.pdf | (Katz & Levine, 2015) | ||||
| Program or Initiative | Expanding Notions of Digital Access: Parents' Negotiation of School-Based Technology Initiatives in New Immigrant Communities | "This study examines the digital access, use, and beliefs of Spanish-dominant immigrant parents, whose children attended a school in early stages of 1:1 (one laptop, one child) and BYOD (bring-your-own-device) initiatives. Informed by critical and ecological approaches to family literacy and technology use, the analysis compares the cases of eight parents attending technology workshops facilitated by the researcher and looks at the factors and contexts shaping their digital access and use and their shifts in access over two years. The analysis then narrows down to their beliefs about the use of school-provided devices. Findings illustrate the diversity in device use and customization in families with similar immigration trajectories, showing how economic factors, education, and established livelihoods in the community shaped their decisions to obtain devices and Internet connectivity. Cases also show the crucial role of the school in providing computers and technology training; however, decisions about taking school devices home and supervising children’s activity were shaped by parents ’beliefs about their roles supporting their children’s moral education, and their existing family practices. Implications for family literacy programs and outreach for digital equity in new migration settings are discussed." (Abstract) | Expanding Notions of Digital Access: Parents' Negotiation of School-Based Technology Initiatives in New Immigrant Communities | 2017 | Digital equity, Digital literacy, Digital access | English learners/not native speakers, Low income populations | The study emphasized the importance of digital equity in the context of home-school partnerships and power dynamics. The experiences of eight families with similar migration backgrounds but different priorities regarding digital resources highlighted the diversity of experiences. Factors at different levels, such as economic status, support systems, and educational opportunities, influenced how parents adapted to and utilized digital tools. The study also explored the role of schools in technology adoption, acknowledging the complexities and limitations associated with school equipment. Equitable digital access was understood differently by various stakeholders and had to take into account the impact on marginalized households. The study emphasized the need for collaborative decision-making and parental involvement in technology initiatives, as well as the role of community libraries in shaping access and beliefs. Ultimately, an equity-focused approach to technology at home required collaboration with families, considering their insights and experiences, to promote inclusive digital learning for Latinx students. | "This article is guided by these research questions:RQ1. What are immigrant parents’ histories and ecologies of access and use of technology? What contexts and factors facilitate or constrain access and use?RQ2. What are parents’ beliefs about using school-provided devices? How do they respond to school-based digital initiatives, in light of their home technology access and use, and their existing family literacy priorities?" (p. 388) | - Limited library visits by Latinx patrons: The text mentions that Latinx library patrons are least likely to visit libraries compared to other demographic groups. This limitation suggests that the library services may be less effective in reaching and engaging Latinx communities. - Lack of knowledge about library services: The text states that Latinx patrons know the least about library services. This limitation indicates that there may be a gap in communication or outreach efforts to inform and educate Latinx communities about the available services and resources. - Lack of bilingual support and community inclusion: The text suggests the importance of libraries valuing and supporting bilingualism, community inclusion, and advocacy for Latinx communities. The absence of such support and inclusion may limit the effectiveness of library services in catering to the needs and preferences of Latinx patrons. | To foster an equitable approach to technology at home, it is crucial to involve families in the process. Collaborating with families in the development of digital tools can enhance communication, facilitate coalition-building, and promote dialogue. These tools have the potential to bridge communities, connecting parents and children, provided that they are implemented in ways that incorporate the insights and experiences of families. By adopting this inclusive and responsive approach, technology initiatives can effectively support Latinx students' digital learning, advancing towards greater inclusivity and responsiveness. Also community library services would benefit this approach. | Noguerón-Liu, S. (2017). Expanding notions of digital access: Parents' negotiation of school-Based Technology Initiatives in new immigrant communities. Equity & Excellence in Education, 50(4), 387–399. https://doi.org/10.1080/10665684.2017.1395301 | (Noguerón-Liu, 2017) | ||||
| Journal article | Digital prison rehabilitation and successful reentry into a digital society: A systematic literature review on the new reality on prison rehabilitation | To smooth formerly incarcerated individuals' transition to post-prison life in a technology-dominated society, there is a need to support and enhance their social skills, self-esteem, rehabilitation, and re-integration. There is a lack of digital transformation in prison rehabilitation policy and practice and increase the individuals' social inclusion, access to job opportunities after release. | Digital prison rehabilitation and successful re-entry into a digital society: A systematic literature review on the new reality on prison rehabilitation | 2022 | Digital prison rehabilitation; Digital society; Successful re-entry; Post-prison life | Formerly incarcerated individuals | N/A | They bring what the policy lacks to support incarcerated individuals and how digital skills and rehabilitation can help their adaptation to post-prison life through a systematic review. Two theoretical frameworks stood out in this study: The Good Lives Model (centering rehabilitation to promote re-entering the society and gaining social skills for a good life after prison) and Critical Theory Approach (According to Koltonski (2014), the Critical Theory aims to unmask the ideology falsely justifying some form of oppression. As noted by abolitionists, prisons do little to reform offenders, and at worst they reproduce crime). | Most of the prison rehabilitation practices and policies are still offline and do not cater for the digital realms. | The incorporation of digital rehabilitation may help individuals reintegrate into society more seamlessly and improve their quality of life post-prison, especially in a technology-driven society. Through the integration of current digital technologies along with augmented and virtual reality, researchers in digital prison rehabilitation can develop models that foster a new approach to prison rehabilitation. | There seems a gap in developing digital skills of incarcerated individuals that would affect their adaptation into the society - and any maladaptation could cause further chaos either in their lives or in the society. | Digital training for incarcerated individuals | Zivanai, E., & Mahlangu, G. (2022). Digital Prison Rehabilitation and successful re-entry into a digital society: A systematic literature review on the new reality on prison rehabilitation. Cogent Social Sciences, 8(1). https://doi.org/10.1080/23311886.2022.2116809 | (Zivanai & Mahlangu, 2022) | ||
| Program or Initiative, ASR Analytics: National Telecommunications and Information Administration | ASR Analytics: National Telecommunications and Information Administration | A case study report on the South Dakota Network SDN): Comprehensive Community Infrastructure. Since 2014, the SDN plans to increase fiber networks throughout rural areas of the state and improve broadband network with Community Anchor Institutions (CAI's) in underserves areas. There is also an initiative to provide this network to distance learning programs, replacing outdated equipment, state or local government agencies, and public libraries. The report examines the financial expense using the Broadband Technologies Opportunities Program to spur economic growth through broadband networks. | South Dakota Network Case Study Report (Order Number D10PD18645) | 2014 | Digital skills, Digital divide | Rural residents, Racial or ethnic minorities, Job creations | Other state(s) | Rural | More distance learning programs for students; SDN can now centralize virtual storage on many platforms (like clouds); funded a telecommunications lab at Mitchell Technical Institute (MTI) for network technician and engineering jobs; And connecting rural medical facilities with Avera network, an internet network where small rural clinics are able to make e-services and increase hiring more physicians for rural clinics. | Through interviews and data collection (surveys); the outcomes were evaluated as quantitative and qualitative data parts. SDN had pre-existing broadband network initiatives and used funds from BTOP to escalate their initiatives. | Maintaining the sustainable economic impact of these networks to agriculture and farms over a prolonged period of time. | Funding issues and needing expansion | The ASR Analytics report has many other case studies on other initiatives within the USA. | Using pre-existing funds and software with other projects to elevate the amount of networks created per CAI. | National Telecommunications and Information Administration. (2010). South Dakota network case study report (Order Number D10PD18645). Retrieved from https://www2.ntia.doc.gov/files/south_dakota_network_case_study_report_order_number_d10pd18645.pdf | (National Telecommunications and Information Administration, 2010). |
| Journal article | Digital reentry: uses of and barriers to ICTs in the prisoner reentry process | This empirical study was conducted with 73 formerly incarcerated individuals (64 men and 9 women). In the US, 2/3 of formerly incarcerated individuals are rearrested withing 3 years of release and one aspect is missing efforts to support these individuals effectively to access and use ICTs during their social inclusion. By answering the following RQs, the interviews with these 73 participants revealed what can be done (see the last question) to be equipped with ICT skills: 1. Which types of ICTs do returning citizens use, if any, and for what purpose? 2. If returning citizens do not use ICTs, what are the key barriers to access and use of ICTs? 3. Which kinds of ICTs do returning citizens need to access and use reentry services? | Digital reentry: uses of and barriers to ICTs in the prisoner reentry process | 2022 | Digital skills, Digital divide, Prison reentry; ICTs | Incarcerated individuals | Other state(s) | Urban | They interviewed incarcerated individuals and directly learned from the focus group. Two themes and 5 subthemes emerged: 1- Access a) Access during incarceration b) Insufficient/unstable access post-release 2- Skills a) Knowledge and support b) Perceptions of current skills training c) Potential solutions | Focus group interview and what the participants reported | The study sample predominantly consisted of Black individuals, which serves as a stark reminder of how the prison system contributes to racial inequality and structural racism in the United States. It is important to note that this study was not longitudinal, meaning that it did not track individuals' experiences in navigating the digital world during the reentry process over an extended period. Additionally, all participants were from one state in the Midwest, so the findings may not be applicable to other states or countries with different policies and services. Despite these limitations, the study offers valuable insights into the impact of intensified digital inequalities on one of the most marginalized populations in the United States. | Some recommendations from the participants: "- Basic digital skills training ideally before release to teach how to use a computer, email attachments, assess a link, submit a resume (technology has transformed hiring process) - Digital skills classes could run directly after release and teach basic digital literacy - Having a program for long-term prisoners Many participants in this study think that Department of Corrections would be a good provider for these trainings as DOC is usually perceived as a punishment agent rather than an aid for reentering in society for these individuals." (p. 2038, 2039) | Reisdorf, B. C., DeCook, J., Foster, M., Cobbina, J., & LaCourse, A. (2021). Digital reentry: Uses of and barriers to icts in the prisoner reentry process. Information, Communication & Society, 25(14), 2028–2045. https://doi.org/10.1080/1369118x.2021.1924826 | (Reisdorf et al., 2021) | ||
| Program or Initiative | The Digital Lives of African American Tweens, Teens, and Parents: Innovating and Learning with Technology | This report presents the findings of a comprehensive national study examining the usage of digital technology among African American teenagers and their parents, encompassing the utilization of computers, smartphones, and tablets. The data presented in this report are derived from a large-scale, nationally representative survey involving African American youth (aged 11 to 17) and their parents. Additionally, the study was enriched by insights from ten focus groups comprising African American parents and youth across the country. The primary objective of this research is to explore the extent and manner in which African American families engage with and learn from technology outside of formal educational settings, such as schools. The authors' particular focus lies on the understudied area of African American tweens and teens as digital learners and innovators. Their investigation not only examines media consumption through devices but also emphasizes the aspects of innovation and creation. | The Digital Lives of African American Tweens, Teens, and Parents: Innovating and Learning with Technology | 2016 | Digital skills | Racial or ethnic minorities, Low income populations | N/A | N/A | The findings of the study indicate that the underrepresentation of young African Americans in technology or STEM fields cannot be attributed to a lack of interest, enjoyment, or confidence in using computers. On the contrary, African American youth exhibit a genuine enthusiasm for exploring new technology, actively engaging with computers, and achieving noteworthy accomplishments in this field. Nevertheless, the study highlights a strong desire among African American youth to acquire further knowledge about computers. It emphasizes that while the aspirations of young individuals are evident, it is the collective responsibility of adults, educators, and policymakers to create conducive environments that nurture and reinforce these aspirations. | Survey responses from 1041 pairs of African American adolescents aged 11 to 17 and their parents (total sample size = 2,082). | Recommendations: - Further action is required to ensure that African-American youth have access to high-quality, advanced computer education opportunities - It is important to replace the youth's idea of "mobile devices can do whatever a computer can do" to advance their computer skills - Computer education needs to start at an early age, especially for girls - Parents and care-givers should be included over the digital education so they can provide at-home support for their children - Besides access to computers, there is also a need for high-speed internet | Rideout, V. J., Scott, K. A., & Clark, K. A. (2016). The Digital Lives of African American Tweens, Teens, and Parents: Innovating and Learning with Technology. https://shorturl.at/hiNQ2. Retrieved May 2, 2023, from https://cgest.asu.edu/sites/default/files/2021-02/digital_lives_executive_summary_single.pdf | (Rideout et al., 2016) | |||
| Journal article | Contextualizing connectivity: how internet connection type and parental factors influence technology use among lower-income children | This project examines the relationship between digital inequality, parental mediation, and technology experiences of lower-income children. The study analyzes internet connection types, technology experiences, and perceptions of technology opportunities among families. It investigates how these factors impact the frequency and scope of technology use among school-age children. Findings indicate that contextualizing children's connectivity reveals insights into the technology experiences of lower-income children. Increased connectivity benefits lower-income parents, while greater connectivity correlates with more frequent internet use for both parents and children. Parents' online activity scope influences their children's online experiences and predicts the breadth of their online activities. | Contextualizing connectivity: how internet connection type and parental factors influence technology use among lower-income children | 2017 | Digital equity, Digital divide, Digital inclusion | English learners/not native speakers, Racial or ethnic minorities, People with low literacy, Low income populations | Lower-income parents, especially those with the lowest household incomes, lowest education levels, and non-native English speakers, derive significant benefits from increased connectivity in terms of internet confidence, frequency of use, and activity scope. Among the lowest income group, the type of connection (mobile or broadband) has a significant impact on internet outcomes, while middle and top income parents experience less dramatic benefits regardless of connection type. Spanish-dominant Hispanic parents, particularly immigrants, benefit the most from increased connectivity, particularly with mobile internet access, in terms of internet activity scope and frequency. | 1 - The relationships between internet connection and "race/ethnic origin, parental education, and household income" 2 - Predicting children's internet use frequency and internet activity scope by looking at family connection type, parents' own online experiences, and parents' perceptions of digital opportunities | The text presents several limitations to consider. Firstly, the analyses do not account for third-level discrepancies in outcomes of online engagement, which limits the assessment of how parents' technology experiences influence their children's use. Secondly, the data were collected in mid-2015, which may not accurately reflect the rapidly changing digital landscape. Thirdly, the cross-sectional nature of the dataset only allows for the assessment of associations between variables, rather than establishing causal links. Additionally, relying on parental reports of children's internet use frequency and activities may overlook children's own perspectives and experiences. | Parental mediation can contribute to digital equity | Katz, V. S., Moran, M. B., & Ognyanova, K. (2017). Contextualizing connectivity: How internet connection type and parental factors influence technology use among lower-income children. Information, Communication & Society, 22(3), 313–335. https://doi.org/10.1080/1369118x.2017.1379551 | (Katz et al., 2017) | ||||
| Program or Initiative | Digital Inclusion and Digital Literacy in the United States: A Portrait from PIAAC’s Survey of Adult Skills | This paper utilizes U.S. data from the Survey of Adult Skills (PIAAC) to investigate the progression from digital access to digital literacy, forming a pathway towards digital inclusion. The study identifies four distinct stages in the data: Digital Access, Digital Taste, Digital Readiness, and Digital Literacy. The analysis focuses on two key aspects, namely digital equity and digital embedding. The findings reveal a correlation between digital embedding and earnings among workers, while no digital embedding is observed in current employment status among the general adult population. However, digital embedding is evident in all four social outcomes examined among the general adult population. The implications of these findings for digital literacy policies, programs, and future research are also discussed. | Digital Inclusion and Digital Literacy in the United States: A Portrait from PIAAC’s Survey of Adult Skills | 2015 | Digital equity, Digital literacy, Digital inclusion | Aging populations | N/A | A more nuanced understanding of digital equity has emerged, defining it as the absence of significant differences in the digital inclusion pathway based on race/ethnicity, gender, and national origin at specific educational levels. Gender disparities persist, with females having higher access, readiness, and taste but lower assessed PSTRE proficiencies than males. Variation in digital equity is observed among different racial/ethnic and national origin groups, with foreign-born adults and Black and Hispanic adults facing lower levels of digital access, readiness, taste, and PSTRE proficiencies. However, they exhibit higher levels of ICT use outside of work compared to their counterparts. ICT use shows digital embedding with earnings for prime age workers, but not with employment status, and social outcomes such as social trust, volunteerism, political efficacy, and general health consistently show digital embedding with ICT use outside of work. PSTRE proficiency is significantly associated with social trust, while minority group status and national origin do not significantly impact economic outcomes after controlling for education and digital literacy effects. | Findings regarding digital embedding in this study should not be interpreted as causal relationships. Digital embedding represents a weaker and more general relationship than a causal link between ICT use and an outcome, but it is more specific than a simple correlation. | The study acknowledges several limitations. Firstly, the PSTRE (Problem Solving in Technology-Rich Environments) assessment used in the study focused solely on computers, neglecting other platforms and devices, thus limiting the analysis of digital inclusion to computerized settings. Secondly, the study warns against drawing definitive conclusions from the model system or microcosm of digital inclusion presented in the analysis. The relationship between ICT use and outcomes, referred to as digital embedding, is considered weaker and more general than a causal relationship. Therefore, caution is advised in inferring that increasing digital literacy would directly lead to improved social and economic outcomes. Further research is recommended to explore these limitations and possibilities for future investigations. | Tailored strategies may be required to address digital inclusion disparities among different populations at various stages of the digital inclusion pathway. Comparisons between groups, such as men and women, Black and Hispanic individuals versus Whites, and foreign-born individuals compared to U.S.-born adults, reveal consistent patterns of digital inequities. These groups face challenges in computer usage, willingness to engage with technology, and possessing basic computer skills, even after accounting for factors like age, education, and employment status. | Reder, S. (2014). PIAAC: A Conceptual Framework. Retrieved from https://static1.squarespace.com/static/51bb74b8e4b0139570ddf020/t/551c3e82e4b0d2fede6481f9/1427914370277/Reder_PIAAC.pdf | (Reder, 2014) | |||
| Journal article | Connecting with technology in lower-income US families | This article investigates the potential for parents and children to support each other in under-served communities where external resources are limited. The study focuses on low- and lower-middle-income families, which have received less attention in previous research on technology and families. It examines how sociodemographic factors and parents' technology use influence the dynamics of guiding each other's technology experiences between parents and children. The study also explores how sibling collaboration is influenced by whether inter-generational technology practices are driven by parents or children. The findings have implications for enhancing digital equity initiatives aimed at school-age children and their families. | Connecting with technology in lower-income US families | 2017 | Digital equity, Digital inclusion | Low income populations, English learners/not native speakers, Racial or ethnic minorities | The study found that while certain associations between sociodemographic factors and parent tech guidance and child tech brokering diminished after considering parents' Internet confidence, years online, and Internet use frequency, race/ethnic origin and education remained significant predictors. English-dominant Hispanics were more likely to receive child tech brokering for device troubleshooting, while African Americans and Spanish-dominant Hispanics were more likely to receive child tech brokering for online information searches. African Americans were less likely to provide tech guidance for device usage, and Spanish-dominant Hispanics were less likely to provide tech guidance for online information searches. | Survey responses (1191 respondents) and focus group interviews | While the data analyses contribute to various literature, there are notable limitations to consider. The dataset lacked specific questions on parenting strategies related to children's technology use, as we prioritized the insights shared by interviewed parents and children rather than using established mediation style measures. Therefore, the analyses do not comprehensively assess family technology dynamics. Additionally, the cross-sectional nature of the dataset limits our ability to make causal claims. Lastly, the data were collected from families in the lower half of the US income distribution, aiming to lay the groundwork for future research on technology experiences across the income spectrum while acknowledging the ongoing digital equity challenges at the lower end. | Children from low-income and immigrant families often face challenges in accessing new technologies consistently and with quality (Horrigan, 2014). This lack of access hinders their ability to effectively bridge the digital divide within their families. Additionally, research indicates that the immersive nature of new technologies may expose limitations in children's ability to act as technology brokers (Yip et al., 2016). To promote digital equity, it is crucial for programs to address the needs of parents and children, providing local support and affordable access, while also fostering confidence in collaborative learning within families. | Katz, V. S., Moran, M. B., & Gonzalez, C. (2017). Connecting with technology in lower-income US families. New Media & Society, 20(7), 2509–2533. https://doi.org/10.1177/1461444817726319 | (Katz et al., 2017) | ||||
| Journal article | Community Variations in Low-Income Latino Families’ Technology Adoption and Integration | In this study, the authors aimed to investigate the variations at the micro-level (within families) and meso-level (across three different communities) in terms of the adoption and usage of high-speed Internet and Internet-capable devices among low-income Latino families. By comparing three demographically similar communities where discounted broadband is available to low-income families with school-age children, this article takes a communication-centered, bottom-up perspective on a top-down technology policy. The article utilizes an ecological approach that considers the intersection of macro- and meso-level factors influencing Latino families' perceptions of technology and shaping their subsequent decisions regarding adoption and integration. | Community Variations in Low-Income Latino Families’ Technology Adoption and Integration | 2015 | Digital equity | Low income populations, English learners/not native speakers, Racial or ethnic minorities | The study examined how local decision-makers influenced the implementation of a national digital equity initiative by taking into account their assumptions about the needs of low-income, Mexican-heritage families. Additionally, the study explored how these families' decisions regarding technology adoption and engagement were impacted by their localized perceptions of risks and opportunities associated with technology. The following research questions guided the study: 1: How do local decision-makers shape the implementation of digital equity initiatives? 2: How do the infrastructures of families’ local environments influence their assessments of the risks and opportunities associated with adopting the Internet and related technologies? | 336 qualitative interviews were conducted with parents and children. | The study randomly selected respondents from Arizona and Colorado, while in California, families were selected from a list of attendees at a C2C informational session. The findings from Arizona and Colorado can be considered representative, unlike the data from California. The study did not include interviews with C2C-eligible families without internet access, so a comparison between their experiences and those with current access was not possible. Additionally, the sampling strategy did not allow for comparisons across different social groups. The study focused specifically on Mexican-origin families instead of treating Latinos as a single category, as there are significant differences among specific heritage groups. | Digital equity programs have the potential to tackle larger social inequalities, but their effectiveness relies on a comprehensive understanding of how families assess the capabilities of digital technologies in meeting their specific needs and aspirations. Hence, a detailed needs assessment before installing any programs is required. | Katz, V. S., & Gonzalez, C. (2015). Community variations in low-income Latino families’ technology adoption and integration. American Behavioral Scientist, 60(1), 59–80. https://doi.org/10.1177/0002764215601712 | (Katz & Gonzalez, 2015) | ||||
| Journal article | Equity in Distance Education During COVID-19 | Using a phenomenological approach to qualitative research, this study explores the experiences of educators during COVID-19 distance learning, specifically focusing on those serving students with varying levels of digital access and proficiency. The researchers analyzed survey data collected from 13 educators, which guided a subsequent focus group discussion involving 11 educators. The findings indicate that students faced disparities in both digital access and proficiency, with access to technology posing a more significant challenge. Additionally, educators responded to these digital inequities by going the extra mile and adjusting their mindsets. Moreover, the study reveals that educators expressed a desire to sustain the implemented reforms that proved beneficial to their students. | Equity in Distance Education During COVID-19 | 2021 | Digital equity, Digital divide | N/A | N/A | The study aimed to investigate the effects of COVID-19 on education by exploring several key questions: (a) how have teachers, schools, and districts responded? (b) did they consider the digital divide in their responses? (c) have teachers seen evidence of a digital divide? (d) do teachers feel that their technology preparation (or lack) impacted their and their students’ experience? (e) will any changes or improvements be continued after COVID? | 7 teachers, 2 counselors, 4 administrators took the survey and in the focus group, there were 6 teachers, 2 counselors, and 3 administrators. The survey included 10 background questions and 20 Likert-scale questions. | The data were based on self-reports. | The study was conducted using a single survey and a single focus group. Hence, the findings may not be applicable for a broad population. | A community where teachers can support each other and collaborate. | Williams, T.K., McIntosh, R.W., & Russell, W.B. (2021). Equity in distance education during COVID-19. Research in Social Sciences and Technology, 6(1), 1-24. https://doi.org/10.46303/ressat.2021.1 | (Williams et al., 2021) | ||
| White Paper | When school comes home: How low-income families are adapting to distance learning | This study demonstrates the far-reaching impact of COVID-19 on families, with 58% reporting food insecurity and 71% experiencing a loss of income. Despite these challenges, families have made significant sacrifices to enhance their digital readiness at home. | When school comes home: How low-income families are adapting to distance learning | 2020 | Digital equity | Low income populations | N/A | The study focused on student engagement, learning outcomes, and the factors influencing motivation and achievement in distance learning. It also identified effective pedagogical and communication strategies to address these challenges. The report provides recommendations to improve remote learning outcomes, aiming to contribute to policy discussions on supporting schools during the pandemic. The study highlighted the widespread impact of COVID-19 on families, with a significant proportion reporting food insecurity and loss of income. Limited access to reliable internet and suitable devices negatively affected student engagement and motivation, while parents' unfamiliarity with digital technologies posed challenges for their support. The report underscores the crucial role of school support, including internet access, devices, live instruction, and teacher feedback, in enhancing remote learning. The study surveyed families in specific K-12 schools, shedding light on broader challenges such as employment, food security, housing, and health issues faced by families during the pandemic. | Interviews and survey results - completed by families. The sample size is 1971 families. | When collecting data, lack of language support in Spanish was a burden for families with low level of education. | Language support for people with low level of education and literacy. | Aguilar, S. J., Galperin, H., Baek, C., & Gonzalez, E. (2020). When school comes home: How low-income families are adapting to distance learning. https://doi.org/10.35542/osf.io/su8wk | (Aguilar et al., 2020) | |||
| Book, Journal article | Addressing Language Barriers to Digital Health Equity | Medical professionals who have analyzed digital health equity have written a blog on closing the gaps in telemedicine care to address language barriers for patients who need care. This provides an in-depth look at data collected and create new principles for health systems to improve on. Data examined is from the Children's Hospital of Pennsylvania (CHOP) medical technology system. | Addressing Language Barriers to Digital Health Equity | 2021 | Digital equity, Digital literacy, Digital inclusion | Rural residents, English learners/not native speakers, Racial or ethnic minorities, refugee and migrant populations | Nationwide (USA) | Urban, Suburban, and Rural | At CHOP (Children's Hospital of Philadelphia), patient portal accounts serve a crucial purpose by granting access to video visits with interpreters. The activation of a patient's portal account signifies their successful navigation and enables them to schedule and engage in video visits. Throughout the pandemic, as multilingual video visits became more prevalent at CHOP, the registration and clinic staff, along with community health workers, implemented initiatives that resulted in a 35% increase in patient portal activation rates for Spanish-speaking patients between January 2020 and 2021. | Examining the monthly patient myCHOP activation rate and which languages are preferred. Each variable consists of Non-hispanic Black, Hispanic/Latino, Asian, Non-hispanic White, Others. Then the variables are involved in a longitudinal data set from December 2019- May 2021 [Visit the page for the data]. | While there was a 17% reduction in the gap between portal activation rates for English- and Spanish-speaking patients, significant disparities remain. Specifically, the English-speaking patient population currently has 33% more patients with activated portal accounts compared to Spanish-speaking patient population. | The multilingual systemic approach for health equity is a new approach to the CHOP system, and there is a lot to gather especially after the pandemic. | Enhancing multilingual support is crucial to improve the digital literacy skills of non-English speakers and enable their active engagement in the healthcare system. | Craig, S., Shen, A., Wallis, K., Pak-Gorstein, S., Yun, K., & Dalembert, G. (2021). How health systems can help address language barriers to achieve digital health equity. Penn Leonard Davis Institute of Health Economics Blog. | (Craig et al., 2021) | |
| Journal article, Program or Initiative | A Survey of Emergent Digital Literacy Inside the Homes of Latino Immigrants in California | This paper is looking into how Latino families navigate digital systems such as access to technologies, social-economical contexts, implementation, and uses overlap within immigrant communities. | A Survey of Emergent Digital Literacy Inside the Homes of Latino Immigrants in California | 2015 | Digital literacy, Digital divide | People with low literacy, English learners/not native speakers, Racial or ethnic minorities | Other state(s) California, USA | Urban | The findings indicate that as newcomers (immigrants) adopt IT tools to fulfill their personal, educational, and work-related needs and aspirations, they begin to acquire valuable digital and language literacy skills, as well as new modes of interaction with formal institutions in the USA. However, despite advancements in technology and social media since the study was conducted in 2002, there remains a scarcity of research based on direct observations that investigates IT utilization within immigrants' homes, particularly in relation to their existing educational and work activities. These results highlight the necessity for a more comprehensive examination of these practices within homes and their potential implications for educational and labor-related initiatives aimed at immigrant reform. | Results were measured by: Space: Participant homes were equipped with computers or other technologies. Time: Initial training visits for digital skills were conducted in participants' homes, although scheduling conflicts arose due to many participants having full-time jobs. Examining: The study focused on emergent or existing literacies. Work: The program aimed to empower participants working in computer-based environments. School: The research explored how English language learners incorporate digital skills in academic settings. Academic: A software was developed to facilitate easy comprehension and navigation of given information. Personal and social: The study investigated how Latino English language learners create digital imagery and their perspectives on technology. Adults seeking legal and community involvement: The research examined how adults utilize digital devices and technologies to explore opportunities within the community. | This study cannot generalize the entire Latino immigrant population, but give further information on how many individuals can reside with this study. There are limitations in possible biases other reviews and programs may use from this source. | This study only views in the lenses of how these programs can be adapted, to avoid any hidden biases. | The study's findings have significant implications for programs and initiatives addressing technology utilization among individuals facing digital disparities. The research highlights how technology adoption enables parents to enhance their business practices and gain control over previously exploitative systems. Additionally, adults in these communities utilize technology to generate income and engage in social events. Academically, technology empowers students and adults to improve their learning outcomes and participate more actively in educational institutions. Future studies should explore the impact of technology on marginalized communities' integration efforts, digital literacy development, and the role of technology in enhancing parent engagement in schools. | Torralba, J. A. (2015). A survey of emergent digital literacy inside the homes of Latino immigrants in California: Digital literacy inside the homes of Latinos in California. Journal of international migration and integration, 16, 491-515. | (Torralba, 2015) | |
| Website, Program or Initiative | Digital Equity for Learning: Opportunity for All | This is an initiative to provide information on how low income families need advances in digital equity. It is an funded project with researchers from the Bill & Melinda Gates foundation in gathering data on | Digital Equity for Learning: Opportunity for All | 2016 | Digital equity, Digital literacy, Digital divide, Digital inclusion | Low income populations, Children | Other state(s) | Urban, Suburban, and Rural | Published in 2016, this comprehensive survey marks the first nationwide effort to address the digital divide for both English and Spanish speakers. The survey covers various case studies and initiatives focusing on low-income digital equity issues among Latino families in Arizona, Colorado, and California. These initiatives aim to improve access to networks and technologies for families and children in grades K-8. The survey provides valuable insights into strategies to bridge the digital divide and promote equitable digital opportunities in underserved communities. | Recovering the following issues: - Over 50% of low-income families in the states of Arizona, Colorado, and California experience limited internet connectivity and low bandwidth. - The initiative aims to explore ways in which families can contribute to facilitating English digital literacy, particularly for those whose first language is not English. - The research emphasizes the critical role of internet access in children's learning and highlights the specific impact of this digital divide on low-income families. - The initiative provides detailed insights into the importance of internet connectivity for educational purposes and sheds light on the challenges faced by low-income families in accessing the internet. | The studies reveal that current digital equity initiatives and available media content fall short in fully addressing low-income families' needs and aspirations for meaningful engagement and learning. | On the website there are case studies and program annual reports to give details of the findings. | How to increase digital equity for low income families and K-8 children in your state. | Digital Equity for Learning. (n.d.). Retrieved May 2, 2023, from http://digitalequityforlearning.org/ | (Digital Equity for Learning, n.d.). | |
| Journal article, Systematic review | The outcomes of gaining digital skills for young people’s lives and wellbeing: A systematic evidence review | This systematic evidence review of research on digital skills among 12- to 17-year-olds identified 34 studies that used cross-sectional survey methods to examine the association of digital skills with tangible outcomes. Two-thirds concerned the association with online opportunities or other benefits. Another third examined online risks of harm. Findings showed a positive association between digital skills and online opportunities, information benefits, and orientation to technology. Greater digital skills were indirectly linked to greater exposure to online risks, although any link to harm was unclear. While technical skills were linked with mixed or even negative outcomes, information skills were linked with positive outcomes. | The outcomes of gaining digital skills for young people’s lives and wellbeing: A systematic evidence review | 2022 | Digital skills, Children and young people, digital skills, online opportunities, online risks, skill dimensions, systematic review, tangible outcomes, wellbeing | K-12 (12-17 yo children) | International | N/A | This study examines 34 articles that utilized surveys and performance tests. It sheds light on a significant issue that is often overlooked or given less priority in various contexts: the exposure of children and young people to harmful online content, highlighting the need for policies to address this concern. Additionally, the reviews of these studies demonstrate a positive correlation between digital skills and learning outcomes, such as the ability to conduct online research for homework assignments. Although it was not clear if there was a link to harm, higher exposure to online risks was indirectly associated with greater digital skills. | All 34 studies reviewed in this analysis relied on surveys, while only three of them incorporated performance tests to assess digital skills. This has two important implications. Firstly, digital skills were mostly evaluated based on self-reported data. Secondly, only a limited number of studies utilized performance tests to measure digital skills. | There was limited research available regarding the outcomes associated with communication or creative digital skills. | It is crucial to address the issue of potential harmful content and take measures to prevent young learners' exposure to such content while enhancing their digital skills. Any digital skills training programs should include a focus on online safety to ensure a comprehensive approach to protecting young learners. | Livingstone, S., Mascheroni, G., & Stoilova, M. (2021). The outcomes of gaining digital skills for young people’s lives and wellbeing: A systematic evidence review. New media & society, 14614448211043189. | (Livingstone et al, 2021) | ||
| Journal article | Locked up and left out: Formerly incarcerated people in the context of digital inclusion | Vulnerable and marginalized groups, particularly formerly incarcerated individuals (FIPs), experience significant digital inequalities. These groups face a range of vulnerabilities including aging, disability, low socioeconomic status, limited education, and gender-based marginalization. Factors such as race and ethnicity further compound these disparities in the United States. This article expands upon existing frameworks of digital skills and the digital rehabilitation model introduced by Reisdorf and Rikard. It investigates how FIPs navigate the digital realm following their release from incarceration and provides empirical support for the efficacy of the digital rehabilitation model. | Locked up and left out: Formerly incarcerated people in the context of digital inclusion | 2022 | Digital inequality, digital rehabilitation, incarceration, re-entry, vulnerability | Incarcerated individuals | Other state(s) | Urban | Access: A recurring theme among the participants was their limited access to the internet and ICTs both during their incarceration and after their release. Digital skills: Participants, particularly those who were older or had longer sentences, faced a greater challenge with the lack of digital skills compared to the lack of access to digital resources. The need for digital skills training: Participants strongly expressed the need for training in digital skills. | Interviews with 73 returning citizens and what they reported | Although the study addressed a significant gap, it cannot be generalized because it was based on "participants'" experiences. | The study highlights that formerly incarcerated individuals often come from vulnerable communities, including low-income individuals, people of color, and senior citizens. This dual disadvantage further hinders their integration into society, including the digital sphere, as modern devices and daily life activities increasingly require digital literacy skills. When designing training programs and courses for this population, it is crucial to address these basic challenges. Additionally, limited access to affordable technology devices, such as smartphones, further restricts their connectivity to society and the wider world. | Reisdorf, B. C., & DeCook, J. R. (2022). Locked up and left out: Formerly incarcerated people in the context of digital inclusion. New Media & Society, 24(2), 478-495. | (Reisdorf & DeCook, 2022) | ||
| Journal article | Double lockdown: The effects of digital exclusion on undocumented immigrants during the COVID-19 pandemic | This study explores the digital experiences of undocumented Latino immigrants during the COVID-19 pandemic in the United States. Through 32 interviews (with Latino immigrants), the research identifies key insights regarding their access to telehealth services, exposure to COVID-19 misinformation, difficulties in assessing privacy risks, and varying outcomes of technology use. Undocumented immigrants face barriers to telehealth, are at risk of misinformation, struggle with privacy concerns, and experience diverse impacts of technology during the pandemic. These findings emphasize the importance of addressing digital inclusion and providing targeted support for this population in times of crisis. | Double lockdown: The effects of digital exclusion on undocumented immigrants during the COVID-19 pandemic | 2022 | Digital divide, Digital inclusion, COVID-19, Latino/a, marginalization, misinformation, telehealth, undocumented immigrants | Undocumented immigrants | Urban | In this article, the impact of digital technologies on undocumented immigrants' experiences during the COVID-19 pandemic is examined. The study includes individuals who personally contracted COVID-19 or had family members affected by it, all of whom utilized digital technologies to cope with the pandemic. The findings highlight the dual nature of digital inclusion and exclusion, with some participants facing challenges related to limited access (e.g., shared bandwidth) while others benefited from increased access (e.g., receiving laptops from school districts). The study reveals several key insights: (1) Undocumented immigrants encounter specific barriers when accessing telehealth services, including distrust of online platforms. (2) They heavily rely on social media for pandemic-related news and information, making them more vulnerable to misinformation and hindering their engagement with public health communication. (3) Assessing online privacy risks proves difficult for undocumented immigrants despite facing surveillance and targeting threats. (4) The outcomes of technology use during the pandemic vary among participants, and their strategies for managing these outcomes differ as well. | Interviews with 32 Latino immigrants and their experiences with digital technologies during the pandemic. | To promote the well-being of marginalized immigrants, community organizations play a crucial role in disseminating relevant information through both online and offline channels. It is important to provide these individuals with comprehensive training on safe and healthy digital technology usage, empowering them to navigate the online space while addressing their unique vulnerabilities. Scholars can contribute by conducting further research into the relationship between digital exclusion and the intersecting vulnerabilities faced by specific marginalized groups. Engineers, policymakers, and community organizers need to be mindful of the potential for technology to exacerbate marginalization, particularly during crises, and should work towards minimizing such risks for the most vulnerable members of society. | Bastick, Z., & Mallet-Garcia, M. (2022). Double lockdown: The effects of digital exclusion on undocumented immigrants during the COVID-19 pandemic. new media & society, 24(2), 365-383. | (Bastick & Mallet-Garcia, 2022) | ||||
| Journal article | No one-size-fits-all! Eight profiles of digital inequalities for customized inclusion strategies | This study represents eight user profiles and highlights that digital inclusion/exclusion is highly related to social inclusion/exclusion in today's world. These eight profiles of digital inequalities are based on five key indicators at the social level: income, education, social participation, agency, and well-being and eight key indicators at digital level: access, attitudes, digital skills, soft skills, media richness of the environment, autonomy of use, user practices and social support. These eight profiles are: (a) Digital Outcasts, (b) Hopelessly Undigital, (c) Digital Fighters, (d) Smoothly Digital, (e) Digital All-Stars, (f) Unexpected Digital Master, (g) Digital Drop-Outs and (h) Digitally Self-Excluded. | No one-size-fits-all! Eight profiles of digital inequalities for customized inclusion strategies | 2022 | Digital divide, Digital inclusion, Customized inclusion, digital divide, digital exclusion, digital inclusion, digital inequalities, profiles, social exclusion, social inclusion, social support, vulnerability | General population | N/A | N/A | This study brings a different approach to digital divide and state that it is not a one-way relationship. Social and digital inclusion/exclusion influence each other. Potential RISK factors from the paper: "Looking at the direct relations where mechanisms of social exclusion are transferred or exacerbated at the digital level, they identify the following risk factors: Personal resources: cognitive and social skills, Economic resources: employment, income; Social resources: social support networks; Political resources: socio-spatial inequalities, agency, participation; Cultural resources: language, education. In direct relations where mechanisms of digital exclusion reinforce social exclusion, they identify the following risk factors: Personal resources: values, attitudes, norms; Economic resources: financial skills, economic opportunities; Social resources: societal norms; Political resources: regulatory frameworks, public services infrastructures; Cultural resources: age, gender." (p. 297) | The study defined eight profiles (a) Digital Outcasts, (b) Hopelessly Undigital, (c) Digital Fighters, (d) Smoothly Digital, (e) Digital All-Stars, (f) Unexpected Digital Master, (g) Digital Drop-Outs, (h) Digitally Self-Excluded that can be used to develop new strategies for at risk (socially and digitally excluded) people. | By rethinking the inclusion strategies to involve all citizens, maybe partnering with youth groups can be an effective strategy for fostering civic engagement and empowering young individuals to actively participate in shaping their communities and community centers, we can create opportunities for residents from various backgrounds and age groups. | Asmar, A., Mariën, I., & Van Audenhove, L. (2022). No one-size-fits-all! Eight profiles of digital inequalities for customized inclusion strategies. new media & society, 24(2), 279-310. | (Asmar & Van Audenhove,2022). | |||
| White Paper, Global Solutions Paper | Bridging the Gender Digital Gap | This paper uses the AfterAccess Global South Survey (a survey that reveals women in Africa, Latin America, and Asia have less access to tech and tech services). Despite the rapidly improving technology and access to it and affordability, there are still significant challenges to overcome and include all population because many services are delivered digitally today. To ensure older adults, indigenous groups, and especially, women are included in the global society will increase the productivity and eliminate inequalities in the society and labour market. | Bridging the Gender Digital Gap | 2019 | Digital skills, Digital inclusion, Digital gender gap | General population - women | International | This paper highlights the primary obstacle to digital inclusion in developing regions, as indicated by the AfterAccess Survey (2018), is the issue of affordability. The cost associated with devices and services further compounds this barrier. Moreover, there exists a gender disparity where women exhibit lower awareness of the potential benefits of mobile Internet and its capacity to empower them and enhance their quality of life. Women often perceive mobile internet as irrelevant to their lives due to competing priorities. Policy recommendations: - Governments should implement legal and regulatory frameworks that drive ICT adoption, considering the internet as a general-purpose technology applicable to all sectors. - Policies should create and strengthen public agencies to coordinate the integration of digital strategies across ministries. - Inclusive policies should promote useful and meaningful content for women through digital platforms to increase access and use of basic services. - Progressive policies should promote technological innovation for social inclusion and economic participation of women. - Capacity building programs should be designed and implemented for women, including digital skills training and individual mentoring. - Education in science and technology fields should be promoted for women through scholarships, internships, and training programs, considering gender quotas for admission. - Affordable network deployment should be promoted through alternative solutions, such as public-private partnerships and coverage obligations. - Digital procurement strategies should foster market competition and segmentation to lower economic barriers for women. - Interventions to address digital exclusion should consider socio-cultural norms and be led by inspiring women in the digital world. - Low levels of education and skills should be addressed through family counseling and innovative pedagogies. - Disaggregated and improved statistical data on digital inclusion, particularly gender digital divide, should be made available to evaluate policy effectiveness. - Further research is needed to understand the dynamics and underlying causes of gender digital divides in different countries. | The statistical findings about: - The gender gap in mobile ownership and mobile internet use, by region - Internet user gender gap - The Accenture Digital Fluency Model Overall Scores for Women Also, the cases given in column P presents how many women were trained through these pilot projects. Please see the paper and visit the links for further information. | Prospera Digital – Mexico EQUALS Global Partnership Athena SWAN Charter – United Kingdom Internet Saathi – Google, India | Mariscal, J., Mayne, G., Aneja, U., & Sorgner, A. (2019). Bridging the Gender Digital Gap. Economics, 13(9). | (Mariscal et al., 2019) | ||||
| White Paper, W20 Brief (part of the G20) | The Digital Gender Gap | This paper, is part of G20, highlights and presents the already known barriers and makes recommendations to resolve them. | The Digital Gender Gap | 2019 | Digital equity, Digital upskilling, Digital divide | Women | International | Recommendations to eliminate the barriers and improve women's digital inclusion not only as a user but also as part of producers. | Percent of women included in technology as users and producers. | International Telecommunication Union (ITU), Groupe Speciale Mobile Association (GSMA) | See the paper for recommendations - page 3-7 | W20 Japan. (2019). Digital equity policy brief. Retrieved from https://w20japan.org/pdf/digital_equity%20_policy_biref_w20%20Japan_final.pdf | (W20 Japan, 2019) | |||
| Website | ASR Analytics: National Telecommunications and Information Administration | A case study report on the Workforce West Virginia (WWV): Public Computer Center. This case study examines the impact of the Workforce West Virginia (WWV) Public Computer Center, a program that received a grant from the Broadband Technologies Opportunities Program (BTOP). The objective of the program is to promote employment growth, enhance workforce quality, and facilitate job retention through the expansion of digital literacy. The upgraded centers offer high-speed Internet access and employment training to various underserved populations, including the unemployed, disabled individuals, veterans, low-income residents, and others across the state. | ASR Analytics: National Telecommunications and Information Administration | 2013 | Digital literacy, Digital skills | Veterans, People with disabilities, Aging populations, Low income populations, unemployed | Other state(s) | Rural | The largest impact in this initiative was the employment of unemployed individuals. The WWV provided broadband technology, and given tools and skills to prepare for employment. The grant expanded for training classes in multiple Public Computer Centers (PCC), aimed at using online tools and resources to search for jobs, prepare and submit applications, and network with employers. This increases the number and quality of applicants for open positions. | Interviews also were conducted in multiple different locations from consumers of the program. This project was conducted in five focus areas to define results: Grantee Training Hours calculation, . Focus Area Statements made by interviewees, offering digital literacy and skill course such as: "Basic Computer Skills" to enhance the help of looking for jobs online. | The focus area of training hours and course skills were reaching ineffectiveness during the time of this study. | Training hours: Saturday hours were not as effective for those with families, university students, aging populations. Equipment for individuals with disabilities was slow to distribute. Credential management. This grant did not fund staff training. Virus protection was very difficult to train on with aging/senior populations. | Calculating training hours as a focus of gathering data and having a training course program with individuals who have disabilities. | National Telecommunications and Information Administration. (2013). Broadband Technology Opportunities Program Evaluation Study (Order No. D10PD18645). Retrieved from https://www.ntia.gov/files/ntia/blogimages/workforce_west_virginia_case_study_report_round_2.pdf | (National Telecommunications and Information Administration, 2013) | |
| Program or Initiative | ASR Analytics: National Telecommunications and Information Administration | This is a case study under the broadband technologies opportunities program (BTOP) to evaluate an Chicago Illinois organization: Smart Chicago Sustainable Broadband Adoption. The BTOP has added a grant to build with the Chicago organization. Efforts since have include free Wi-Fi throughout the city’s public library system; developing approaches to providing and promoting broadband use in urban areas; developing demonstration neighborhoods as test beds for services to close the digital divide; and launching a citywide Digital Excellence Initiative. | ASR Analytics: National Telecommunications and Information Administration | 2013 | Digital literacy, Digital skills, Digital divide, Digital inclusion | English learners/not native speakers, Racial or ethnic minorities, Aging populations, Low income populations | Other state(s) | Urban | The study had five focus areas: digital literacy, workforce/economic development, and quality of life/civic engagement. - This grant and implementation led to greater economic security for individuals and families through increased earnings, higher job placement rates, and greater utilization of public benefits. - Established free-WIFI services in state governments, schools, businesses, and community nonprofits throughout the southwest business district. | Training hours with digital literacy courses, and courses on Spanish's digital literacy proficiency participants were interviewed and surveyed. Citywide survey The completion of modules were collected for data implementation to include in case study. | Cost remains a main issue - and many larger companies that could offer free services instead wanted a credit check. A lack of trust in communities made it difficult to spread this program. As the organization did federal reporting, there was paperwork needed, and could not be electronically documented. Data could not include youth programs or participants. Some recipients did not return the desktop computers before earning a free laptop after finishing the program. | Sustainable smart communities that leverage technology and innovation to achieve sustainable development goals and enhance the quality of life of the citizens. | National Telecommunications and Information Administration. (2012). Chicago Public Library: Broadband Technology Opportunities Program Sustainable Broadband Adoption Project (Round 2) case study report. Retrieved from https://www.ntia.gov/files/ntia/publications/chicago_case_study_report_round_2_0.pdf | (National Telecommunications and Information Administration, 2013) | ||
| Book | Moving Toward Digital Equity in the Technopolis | "This chapter provides examples of how six cities in the United States have successfully addressed the challenges of the economic mobility, academic performance and social inclusion of low income students and families. All six cities meet the criteria of a technopolis, and each leveraged the strength offered by a technopolis through the development of innovative local policies and collaborative community action. The chapter also describes how policies developed at the state and national level may support technopolis cities in their efforts to move toward digital equity" (Abstract). | Moving Toward Digital Equity in the Technopolis | 2020 | Digital equity, Digital divide | Low income populations | Nationwide (USA) | Urban | The examples demonstrated in the study showed that leadership and collective action in the technopolis can help successfully address the digital divide. | Through questions for policy-makers to meet the technopolis city requirements. Please see the paper for further details (p. 85-87). | Sample initiatives: States play a central role in moving toward digital equity: - Missouri: State-wide initiative to bring broadband to 95% of the population. - Ohio: Revamping existing fiber optic network to expand capacity to 100 Gbps. - California: Consortium formed to extend a 100 Gbps network from Los Angeles to Seattle. - New York: Allocating funding to extend broadband access to the Adirondacks. - Georgia: Enacted legislation (Achieving Connectivity Everywhere Act) to close the digital divide. | Technopolis cities to provide a supportive ecosystem for technology-focused industries, research institutions, universities, and startups to collaborate and thrive. | Resta, P. E. (2020). Moving toward digital equity in the technopolis. STEM in the technopolis: The power of STEM education in regional technology policy, 79-89. | (Resta, 2020) | ||
| Program or Initiative, Website | The Case for Broadband in Deep East Texas | Deep East Texas Council of Governments and Economic Development District (DETCOG) aims to create a prosperous and thriving Deep East Texas region where everyone has equal opportunities and a high quality of life. They support their members in boosting local economies and fostering regional cooperation. To address the challenge of rural broadband access, DETCOG commissioned a study by inCode Consulting to assess the feasibility of establishing a high-speed internet network across all 12 counties. The study identified gaps in existing services and highlighted the potential positive impact of broadband on the region's economy and society. | The Case for Broadband in Deep East Texas | 2018 | Digital equity, Digital skills | Rural residents, People with low literacy, Low income populations | Other state(s) | Rural | - Completion of regional feasibility study and market analysis. - Strong support from citizens, local officials, business community, and legislators across the region. - Broadband project manager, engineering, and grant management firms in place. - Phase One of network design has been completed. - DETCOG has initiated a $9 million fixed wireless project in northern Newton County, funded by a CDBG-Mitigation grant, with an ongoing environmental study. - Allocation of $42 million in additional CDBG-Mitigation funds for a regional project that will provide fixed wireless broadband to most households in Jasper, Newton, Polk, San Augustine, San Jacinto, and Tyler counties. - DETCOG is assisting Sabine County with the management of a $17 million fiber-to-the-home project being constructed by Kinetic by Windstream, funded by NTIA. - Ongoing exploration of potential funding sources to implement projects in five counties: Angelina, Houston, Nacogdoches, Shelby, and Trinity. | Achieved goals and funds through DETCOG six-county regional projects. | DETCOG aims to empower its citizens, local businesses, governments, and schools to become active producers in the network economy, rather than mere consumers of information and data services. The organization seeks innovative solutions that offer cost-effective and robust strategies to generate value for stakeholders and the entire region. DETCOG aspires to serve as a model for other regions to emulate, recognizing that if successful in a rural area like this, the approach can be replicated anywhere. | Deep East Texas Council of Governments. (n.d.). DETCOG regional broadband plan. Retrieved from https://www.detcog.gov/_files/ugd/a7f184_f8de3b63d3f84501a477d8dffc01091c.pdf | (Deep East Texas Council of Governments, n.d.) | |||
| White Paper | Digital Skills and Job Training: Community-driven initiatives are leading the way in preparing Americans for today’s jobs | This paper provides an overview of community-driven initiatives in the USA aimed at developing digital skills. Despite low unemployment rates, there is a shortage of skilled workers, especially among lower- and middle-income Americans. Community-driven programs have emerged to address this gap, operating outside traditional job-training systems and relying on collaboration and resourcefulness. These initiatives engage the community, but need to demonstrate results through assessment. | Digital Skills and Job Training: Community-driven initiatives are leading the way in preparing Americans for today’s jobs | 2018 | Digital equity, Digital skills, Digital tools, Digital readiness, Digital initiatives | Low income populations | Nationwide (USA) | N/A | 1- Emerging job-training initiatives prioritize community collaboration, such as Digital Works in Ohio, Connect Your Community in northeast Ohio, MAGIC in Westminster, and programs in Louisville and Kansas City supported by Google Fiber. 2 Digital-skills job-training programs are interconnected with other community digital initiatives, addressing both digital skills and digital equity, as there is a significant gap in home broadband adoption based on educational background. 3- The scale of these initiatives is modest, serving hundreds of people, but they gain trust from the community they serve. However, given the growing demand for digitally-skilled workers and the number of job openings, these initiatives may not fully meet the needs of the economy. | Through the success of community-driven programs and initiatives. For instance, Mid-Atlantic Gigabit Innovation Collaboratory (MAGIC)'s work touches about 400 students in a given year. | - Building assessment into operations: Community-based initiatives should incorporate assessment mechanisms to understand and demonstrate their impacts, especially considering the uncertain funding climate. - Networking and collaboration: Job-training initiatives should network with each other to share lessons, best practices, and resources. This collaboration can help them learn from one another and provide support for other communities looking to start similar programs. - Advocating for more funding: By assessing results and demonstrating their positive impact, these community-driven initiatives can make a case for increased funding. This can help expand the scope of the programs and prepare more individuals for well-paying jobs. Leveraging the community level: The fact that these initiatives originate at the community level is a reason for optimism. Drawing on the success of community-driven programs in other domains (e.g., crime reduction), these initiatives have the potential to make a positive impact on developing digital skills. - Emphasizing resourcefulness and innovation: Given the declining federal funds for job training, these community initiatives need to be resourceful and innovative in finding alternative funding sources and sustaining their operations. | Horrigan, J. B. (2018). Digital Skills and Job Training: Community-driven initiatives are leading the way in preparing Americans for today’s jobs. | (Horrigan, 2018) | |||
| Journal article | Revisiting the Digital Divide in theCOVID-19 Era | "The digital divide limits opportunities for those without ready access to Internet. Movement online of essential activities during COVID-19 took inadequate Internet service from inconvenient to emergency/crisis for many households. A negative correlation between rurality and Internet speed was found at the county level, highlighting the struggle for rural areas. Schools tackle challenges of providing equitable educational access by attempting to provide access for students, while even households with service available struggle to maintain sufficient speeds and/or can afford it. Essential activities moved online, yet sufficient Internet is an essential public service that remains unattainable for many US households." (Abstract) | The Case for Broadband in Deep East Texas | 2021 | Digital divide | Rural residents, Low income populations | Rural | According to MLab data, 15 US states have median download speeds below 25 Mbps, inadequate for multiple devices or high-quality streaming. The data also shows a negative relationship between rural areas and internet speeds. COVID-19 has worsened the internet access challenges in rural areas. Some technology companies and telecommunication providers have offered temporary assistance, but reliable home internet remains unavailable for many rural residents. | Through Internet speed and service cost. | Efforts by telecommunication providers to address the lack of internet access in rural areas have been ineffective. Advertised internet speeds are often not guaranteed, and the availability and affordability of broadband access vary significantly. Temporary no-cost internet services have strict eligibility requirements. Overall, reliable home internet remains inaccessible for many rural residents, regardless of price, indicating the inefficiency of current solutions. | - Improve infrastructure: Enhance broadband infrastructure and explore new technologies like satellite-based connections. - Increase competition: Promote competition among internet service providers to improve services and lower costs. - Government support: Provide funding, incentives, and policies to support broadband deployment in rural areas. - Public-private partnerships: Foster collaboration between the public and private sectors to accelerate internet provision. - Recognize internet as a public good: Consider treating internet access as a public utility to ensure affordability and reliability. - Address affordability: Develop subsidy programs and reduce pricing to make internet services more affordable | Lai, J., & Widmar, N. O. (2021). Revisiting the digital divide in the COVID‐19 era. Applied economic perspectives and policy, 43(1), 458-464. | (Lai & Widman, 2021) | |||
| Program or Initiative, Website | PLA Digital Literacy Workshop Incentive, supported by AT&T | AT&T-supported PLA Digital Literacy Workshop Incentive aims to promote library adoption of PLA's 'Digital Learn' online courses and training materials available at DigitalLearn.org. Over 150 libraries have been selected to participate in the program and will receive funding to support and promote the use of Digital Learn in their communities. The initiative focuses on building digital skills and reducing the digital divide. Thanks to AT&T's support, PLA has expanded the Digital Learn resources with 13 updated online courses and 8 new training packages, available in English and Spanish. All materials provided by Digital Learn are free to use. | PLA Digital Literacy Workshop Incentive, supported by AT&T | 2023 | Digital literacy, Digital skills | People with low literacy, English learners/not native speakers, Aging populations, Low income populations | Nationwide (USA) | A recent PLA collaboration with AT&T has added both content and local partnership opportunities to encourage public libraries and other community partners to promote and teach digital skills together using the Digital Learn platform. | Between September 2022 and March 2023, a total of 1,544 DigitalLearn workshops were conducted, attracting 8,134 learners from across the United States. | Training by public libraries for community members. | Public Library Association. (n.d.). Digital literacy incentive program. Retrieved from https://www.ala.org/pla/initiatives/digitalliteracy/incentive | (Public Library Association, n.d.) | ||||
| Program or Initiative | Girl Develop It (GDI) | They offer all of the programs virtually. They state on the website: Mission GDI is a national nonprofit organization that creates welcoming, supportive opportunities for women and non-binary adults to learn software development skills. Vision They envision a world where all people are included and empowered in developing the future of technology. Values They are committed to making sure people of all races, education levels, incomes, and upbringings can build confidence in their skill set to develop web and mobile applications. The goal is to provide powerful hands-on programs in software development and create basic to advanced web and mobile applications. Diversity, Equity, and Inclusion Statement Through the lens of diversity, inclusion, equity, and belonging, GDI pursues its mission with the aim to provide high-quality and accessible training opportunities in a welcoming and supportive learning environment. | Girl Develop It | Since 2010 | Digital equity, Digital literacy, Digital skills, Digital upskilling, Digital navigation/navigators, Digital divide, Digital inclusion | Women and non-binary adults | Nationwide (USA) | There are free and pay-as-you-go options to embrace all participants from diverse backgrounds. | 100 K have participated since 2011. 6-% of participants are full-time employees. They offer virtual attendance, and provide networking opportunities. 1:1 instructor support. | Enhancing accessibility, expanding class options, reducing expenses, and fostering a thriving community. | Girl Develop It. (n.d.). Home. Retrieved from https://girldevelopit.com | (Girl Develop It, n.d.) | ||||
| Program or Initiative | Hackbright Academy (at Strayer University) | To equip gender diverse people and women with divergent backgrounds and build skills to navigate to a successful career in tech industry. | Our Mission - Empowering Women in Tech - Hackbright Academy | Since 2012 | Digital equity, Digital literacy, Digital skills, Digital upskilling, Digital navigation/navigators, Digital divide, Digital inclusion | Gender diverse people and women (open to all people, regardless of sex) | Nationwide (USA) | Hackbright’s driving mission is to change the ratio in engineering and technology by providing the industry with strong, smart, and talented graduates. We partner with like-minded organizations and companies so that our impact has the farthest possible reach and remain committed to the continued growth in the communities we serve. | 90.2% graduation rate, total employed 87.5%, $92,667 K average salary, | These statistics are based-on 78 students' responses. | Hackbright Academy. (n.d.). Our mission. Retrieved from https://hackbrightacademy.com/mission/ | (Hackbright Academy, n.d.) | ||||
| Program or Initiative | Women in Data | Their goal is to promote gender equality and empower women and girls in the field of data. However, achieving gender parity globally remains a significant challenge. Women continue to face obstacles such as unequal distribution of unpaid work and limited access to opportunities compared to men, resulting in a persistent gender gap. | About Us — Women in Data | Since 2015 | Digital equity, Digital literacy, Digital skills, Digital upskilling, Digital navigation/navigators, Digital divide, Digital inclusion | Women | International | They embrace all backgrounds, provide career services, life coaching, portfolio builder, learning paths and certifications, leadership trainings, and mentorship. | 100,000 members, 50,000 lives reached through programs, 10,000 organizations served | Women in Data. (n.d.). About us. Retrieved from https://www.womenindata.org/about-us/ | (Women in Data, n.d.) | |||||
| Journal article, Program or Initiative | Barriers to Digital Equity: A Case Study of King County | This dissertation examines the role of schools in educating students about digital technology and explores effective ways of utilizing technology for learning purposes. The study focuses on school leaders and district administrators in all school districts of King County. The research methodology includes a document review and an online survey to gather data, which will be analyzed thematically to generate meaningful insights. | Barriers to Digital Equity: A Case Study of King County | 2020 | Digital equity, Digital literacy, Digital skills, Digital divide, Digital inclusion | People with disabilities, Aging populations, Low income populations | Other state(s) | Rural | "The research conducted found that inequitable access to digital technology was tied to marginalized communities, including students' socioeconomic status (SES), race/ethnicity, and disability. Also, the districts with a high SES demographic can pass technology levy, and another cannot, which sets up a system of haves and have-not and falls short of equity as an entire system. "(p. 70). "Schools in high property tax areas are equipped with a teacher computer, an interactive projection board, document camera, audio amplification system, and all students in grades 6-12 are assigned a laptop, low-property tax schools are not afforded the luxury of laptops or high-quality technology in the classroom "(p. 71). | The measures in this study were defined throughout the survey given to students, teachers, and throughout the county. | Frazier, V., McLean, S., & Vo, T. (2020). Barriers to digital equity: A case study of king county. Seattle University. | (Frazier et al., 2020) | ||||
| Program or Initiative | The National League of Cities (NLC) | The National League of Cities provides a digital equity playbook on initiatives and steps city leaders can take to reduce the digital divide. | Getting Started with Digital Equity | 2023 | Digital equity, Digital literacy, Digital skills, Digital navigation/navigators, Digital divide, Digital inclusion | All options | Nationwide (USA) | This initiative has gathered data through different articles, case studies, and organizations to formulate better ways to expand digital equity nationally. Completing the digital equity playbook helps the NLC update their guidelines and data to meet the needs for many cities and lawmakers in the current century. | Success is not measured in the NLC but defined as cities reporting back to this organization for further improvements. | There are multiple sources listed with the NLC to explain this nationwide digital equity plan: https://www.nlc.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/12/NLC-Digital-Playbook-Endnotes_FINAL-1.pdf | National League of Cities. (2021). Digital equity: Ensuring all residents can participate in a connected world. [Fact sheet]. Retrieved December 10, 2021, from https://www.nlc.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/12/CS-Digital-Equity_Fact-Sheet-2-2.pdf | (National League of Cities, 2021) | ||||
| Program or Initiative | Girls Who Code (GWC) - Cracking the gender code report | The gender gap in computing is worsening, posing significant implications for the U.S. economy. Recent research by Accenture and Girls Who Code highlights the decline of women in computing jobs, indicating that universal access to computing in schools alone will not bridge this gap. To address this issue, tailored courses designed to meet the specific needs of girls are essential in fostering their interest and commitment to computing. This report proposes a fresh approach that could increase the number of women in computing to 3.9 million by 2025, raising their representation in the computing workforce from 24% to 39% and generating an additional $299 billion in cumulative earnings. Taking action now, starting with girls in junior high school and nurturing their interest throughout their education, will have the greatest impact. | Girls Who Code - Cracking the gender code report | Since 2012 - The report is from 2019 | Digital equity, Digital literacy, Digital skills, Digital upskilling, Digital navigation/navigators, Digital divide, Digital inclusion, No topics were specified in the report. In general, it addresses al these areas. | Women and non-binary populations | International | The report presents the possible -one- root causes of gender gap and recommends that starting at an early age - junior high school level - is promising to help bridge the gender gap. They found that junior high school and college has positive impacts on girls to choose a tech career, but high school has a negative impact. They recommend support at three stages: 1- Spark girls' interest (junior HS) 2- Sustain girls' engagement (HS) 3- Inspire young women (college) | 500,000 girls, women, and non-binary served; 90,000 college-aged alumni. Please visit the link for further information: Cracking the gender code | They do not mention anything about equipping girls with devices. Lacking devices is another part of this overall problem. | Girls Who Code. (n.d.). Research. Girls Who Code. https://girlswhocode.com/about-us/research/ | (Girls Who Code, n.d.) | ||||
| White Paper | Nearly one-in-five teens can’t always finish their homework because of the digital divide | "School-age children in lower income households are especially likely to lack broadband access. Roughly one third of households with children ages 6 to 17 and whose annual income falls below $30,000 a year do not have a high-speed internet connection at home, compared with just 6% of such households earning $75,000 or more a year. These broadband disparities are particularly pronounced for black and Hispanic households with school-age children – especially those with low household incomes." (p.2) | Nearly one-in-five teens can’t always finish their homework because of the digital divide | 2018 | Digital equity, Digital divide | Racial or ethnic minorities, Low income populations | Nationwide (USA) | Anderson, M., & Perrin, A. (2018). Nearly one-in-five teens can’t always finish their homework because of the digital divide. Pew Research Center, 26. | (Anderson & Perrin, 2018) | |||||||
| Research report | The underlying causes of the digital gender gap and possible solutions for enhanced digital inclusion of women and girls | This research study, commissioned by the European Parliament's Committee on Women's Rights and Gender Equality, offers an extensive examination of the digital gender gap within the European Union (EU). The study sheds light on the influential factors that contribute to this gap, including poverty, time constraints, and sociocultural norms, all of which significantly impact women's involvement in the tech industry as users and developers. A notable example is the unequal distribution of household responsibilities in certain cultures, where women are often burdened with chores while simultaneously juggling full or part-time employment. | The underlying causes of the digital gender gap and possible solutions for enhanced digital inclusion of women and girls | 2018 | Digital equity, Digital literacy, Digital skills, Digital upskilling, Digital navigation/navigators, Digital divide, Digital inclusion, Digital gender gap | Women | International | - Affordable and safe ICT access, digital literacy, and relevant content are key for addressing the digital gender divide. Feminist approaches highlight the need to challenge gender biases in technology and involve women in designing and evaluating ICT initiatives. - EU bodies are addressing the digital gender gap in ICT through policy measures. Internet use varies across member states, and stakeholders collaborate to provide ICT training, promote digital education, and raise awareness of ICT careers. Policy initiatives aim to increase awareness of online risks. - Policy initiatives globally and in the EU aim to address the digital gender divide and empower women. However, persistent gaps in access, skills, and the digital labor market remain, alongside online risks. Non-technological barriers and the need for stakeholder engagement must be addressed to overcome these challenges. | They use several evaluation tools and methods to track the digital gender gap: - The APC WNSP is an international network of women and women's organizations working towards gender equality in the design, implementation, access, and use of ICTs. They advocate for inclusive policies and regulations in the ICT sector. - The Gender Evaluation Methodology (GEM), developed by the APC WNSP, is a project that examines power dynamics and gender relations in various contexts of inequality. It has been refined through collaboration with ICT experts and has been successfully utilized to evaluate ICT projects from a gender perspective. - The APC WNSP aims to leverage ICTs for social action and positive change by promoting women's access to and participation in technology. They provide training, advocate for women's involvement in ICT design and distribution, and work towards empowering women through technology for a more inclusive society. | - Initiatives should acknowledge and involve women's agency and knowledge during the design stage, creating pathways for their development. - Gender perspectives should be applied when assessing development programs. - Attention should be given to the potential challenges associated with the increasing number of women's businesses operating in flexible, informal settings facilitated by ICTs, which can blur the boundaries between work, care, and leisure. - ICT literacy training and methodologies should prioritize participatory approaches. - Curricula should be revised to integrate humanities and philosophy with technology, fostering critical thinking skills. - Policies should adopt a holistic approach to address the diverse needs and challenges related to ICTs and gender equality. - ICTs should be driven by the needs and aspirations of people rather than solely focusing on the technology itself. | Davaki, K. (2018). The underlying causes of the digital gender gap and possible solutions for enhanced digital inclusion of women and girls. FEMM: Women's Rights and Gender Equality. | (Davaki, 2018) | ||||
| Journal article | Smartphone Internet access and use: Extending the digital divide and usage gap | This study investigates the digital divide by analyzing smartphone dependence and usage patterns among different demographic groups in the United States. The findings reveal disparities based on race, age, income, and education, with minority groups, younger individuals, and those with lower incomes and education being more reliant on smartphones for Internet access. Additionally, the study highlights that minority groups and younger individuals primarily use smartphones for social activities, while White individuals and those with higher incomes use them more for accessing news and information. The results support the notion that smartphones can act as both a bridge and a barrier for disadvantaged groups in addressing the digital divide. | Smartphone Internet access and use: Extending the digital divide and usage gap | 2017 | Digital divide, Digital gap | People with low literacy, Racial or ethnic minorities, Low income populations | Nationwide (USA) | This study effectively identifies and addresses key aspects of the digital divide and smartphone usage among different demographic groups. It highlights persistent access gaps, particularly among minorities, less educated individuals, and lower-income groups who rely more on smartphones for Internet access. The study introduces the concept of a device divide, emphasizing the need to consider the quality and range of available devices. It provides valuable insights into usage patterns, such as social and news/information activities, and acknowledges the intersectionality of factors like race, income, education, and age. Overall, the study contributes to the understanding of effective approaches to bridge the digital divide, emphasizing equitable access, tailored interventions, and consideration of specific needs of disadvantaged populations. | The data for this study were collected by the Pew Research Center's Internet Project. A nationally representative sample of 2,254 adults was interviewed between March 15 and April 3, 2012. The majority of the interviews were conducted via landline telephones (1,351 participants), while the remaining interviews were conducted using cellphones (903 participants). Both landline and cellphone users were included in the final sample. | This study acknowledges the challenge of sampling smartphone-dependent users, with only 2.4% of respondents falling into this category. The data collected for this study were obtained in 2012, and since then, smartphone adoption in the United States has significantly increased. The use of secondary data is identified as a limitation, suggesting the need for more nuanced measures of social and information internet activities. Future research should involve experimental settings to compare the effects of smartphone internet access with multimodal internet access and explore the concept of affordances in smartphone usage among different demographic groups. Additionally, investigating differences in content creation and dissemination between smartphone-dependent and multimodal users is recommended for further exploration. | Tsetsi, E., & Rains, S. A. (2017). Smartphone Internet access and use: Extending the digital divide and usage gap. Mobile Media & Communication, 5(3), 239-255. | (Tsetsi & Rains, 2017) | ||||
| Journal article | Informal Technology Education for Women Transitioning from Incarceration | This is an empirical study in which they interviewed 75 women-in-transition (reentering society post-incarceration) to develop a technology training program for this underserved population and then enacted that program in the Midwest in-person at first and then virtually due to the pandemic. The program focused on increasing participants' comfort with technology and computational thinking. The researchers emphasize the importance of addressing these issues in supporting technology learning among women-in-transition and other marginalized populations. | Informal Technology Education for Women Transitioning from Incarceration | 2021 | Digital equity, Digital literacy, Digital skills | Racial or ethnic minorities, Incarcerated individuals | Other state(s) | Participants learned about online safety, how to protect themselves and be critical consumers of information online, and enjoyed access to better employment opportunities thanks to digital literacy/skills training. - Incorporating participants' interests: By designing the curriculum around the specific interests of the participants, the program successfully motivated and engaged them, leading to positive learning outcomes. - Focus on job-relevant skills: The program addressed the participants' challenges in finding employment by equipping them with skills that are in demand in the job market, increasing their chances of securing meaningful work. - Respectful and supportive teaching approach: The sessions were conducted in a manner that respected the participants' self-esteem and self-efficacy, creating a supportive learning environment that fostered their confidence and growth. - Integration of computational thinking: The program incorporated computational thinking practices, such as problem analysis and algorithm design, which enhanced participants' critical thinking and problem-solving abilities. - Assessment and recognition of achievements: The program assessed participants' existing knowledge and skills through a placement interview, allowing for tailored instruction. Successful participants were acknowledged with a certificate of completion, validating their accomplishments. | Researchers measured success via progress interviews with program participants. Their feedback highlighted improvements in online safety, critical evaluation of online information, and increased employment prospects as a result of the program. | Some participants dropped out during/due to Covid-19. | Barriers to success included low self-confidence, lack of access (e.g. poor or nonexistent wi-fi, not having a computer, libraries closed during the pandemic), and lack of mental health/drug addiction support. | They list several other existing prison education and reentry programs (Education Development Center (EDC), Prison Teaching Initiative (PTI), From Prison Cells to PhD, The Initiative for Race Research and Justice, and Operation Restoration), but none are specifically concerned with digital literacy, inclusion, or equity. | Best practices include having relevant instruction/materials and multiple communication channels. Researchers suggest that this study coould inform reentry programs for women leaving incarceration, serve as a template for evidence-based STEM education for marginalized populations, inform scaling up STEM education programs using online mechanisms, support community efforts for women-in-transition, incorporate online tools, peer referrals, and partnerships for program expansion, address challenges of participant retention, computational thinking, and stable employment, and aim to reduce recidivism rates. | Seo, H., Altschwager, D., Choi, B. Y., Song, S., Britton, H., Ramaswamy, M., ... & Yenugu, L. (2021). Informal technology education for women transitioning from incarceration. ACM Transactions on Computing Education (TOCE), 21(2), 1-16. | (Seo et al., 2021) | |
| Journal article | Corrections and Reentry: Digital Literacy Acquisition Case Study | This is a case study of men in Orleans Parish Prison (OPP) preparing for the reentry process, specifically the week-long digital literacy acquisition portion of the program. It highlights the value of digital literacy for modern employment and soft skills for engaging in the teamwork-oriented workplace. Inmates (called learners) are given access to self-paced online learning platform to work through the modules, and some of the experienced learners get the opportunity to serve as mentors to new learners in the program. The study focuses on empowerment and identity development via digital literacy. | Corrections and Reentry: Digital Literacy Acquisition Case Study | 2015 | Digital literacy, Digital skills, Digital inclusion | Incarcerated individuals | Other state(s) | Self-paced modules, specific to the learners' needs allowed them to engage with the material at their own speed and allowed them to go back and review specific content as needed, so each learner was able to tailor their learning experience to meet their own needs. They also had access to mentors and tutors to aid in their academic progress and to help them develop soft skills through interactions with those individuals. | Researchers measured success via interviews with program participants, specifically the program director, two mentors, and two learners. While there are other influencing factors to consider, "The program director noted that OPP has had a 47% reduction in recidivism since implementing the reentry process; this is more than double the Department of Corrections targeted reduction of 20%" (p. 15). | Participants had to be taken offsite in order to fully participate in the program. | At the time of the study (and still true in most states), Internet access was prohibited in a correctional facility, so learners had to be taken to a computer lab offsite/across the street. | This case study is part of a larger research project. | For formerly incarcerated individuals/returning citizens, it is important to provide relevant digital instruction and holistic, wrap-around services to aid in their reentry. | Withers, E., Jacobs, G., Castek, J., Pizzolato, D., Pendell, K., & Reder S. (2015). Corrections and reentry. Digital literacy acquisition case study. http://archives.pdx.edu/ds/psu/16519 | (Withers et al., 2015) | |
| Program or Initiative | Implementing digital technologies in prisons: A qualitative study of inmate experiences | This study explores inmates' experiences with the implementation of digital tablets in correctional centers in NSW. A qualitative approach was used, including interviews with 20 inmates. The tablets were widely accepted and utilized, although initial support and training were limited and inconsistent. The phone feature was the most popular and heavily used. Despite issues like unreliable Wi-Fi and poor-quality headphones, inmates found the tablets beneficial, improving relationships, autonomy, and overall well-being. The study highlights the potential impact of tablet implementation and emphasizes the need for addressing implementation issues and developing best practices for continued use. | Implementing digital technologies in prisons: A qualitative study of inmate experiences | 2022 | Digital equity, Digital divide, Digital inclusion | Incarcerated individuals | International | Giving tablets, inmates were allowed to use in their cells and make calls until 10pm, which allowed them better access to calling family and loved ones after cells were locked. It helped in large ways with inmate mental health and feelings of connectedness to their loved ones outside. | 20 incarcerated individuals from two centers participated. | Headphones broke often and made phone calls more stressful and less private. Inmates really wanted better games, access to streaming services, and instant message / email capability. | Younger inmates can mentor older inmates in learning how to use the tablets and adjust to modern technology. | Thaler, O., Barkworth, J., & Howard, M. (2022) Implementing digital technologies in prisons: A qualitative study of inmate experiences. Corrections Research Evaluation and Statistics. Corrective Services NSW, Research Bulletin No. 5. | (Thaler et al., 2022) | |||
| Journal article | Towards an Efective Digital Literacy Intervention to Assist Returning Citizens with Job Search | After conducting 23 semi-structured interviews as part of a qualitative study, the research team conducted an action research project piloting a digital literacy course for returning citizens (formerly incarcerated individuals). Their interview study found that returning citizens are aided by their family in acquiring and learning to use smartphones and their usage of these devices mirrors mainstream use with 2 notable exceptions: they tend to avoid social media, and they lack the skills needed to effectively find and apply for jobs online. The latter was the focus of their six-week digital literacy training course for 3 participants (limited participation was NOT due to lack of interest; all survey participants expressed an enthusiastic desire for digital literacy training). The digital literacy training course focused on creating and utilizing LinkedIn, Indeed.com, setting up a personal webpage, drafting an online survey, and creating a monthly budget in Google Sheets. | Towards an Effective Digital Literacy Intervention to Assist Returning Citizens with Job Search | 2019 | Digital literacy, Digital skills, Digital navigation/navigators | People with low literacy, Incarcerated individuals | Other state(s) | Urban | Positive feedback from participants in pilot study and answers given during the interviews confirmed previous research on the need for increased digital literacy, especially as it relates to job searches, for returning citizens. | Researchers measured success via interviews with the program participants. | Researchers learned from the first iteration to begin with structured lessons rather than open labs to account for the varied levels of digital and traditional literacy among participants. | Identified barriers to digital literacy for (formerly) incarcerated individuals include inconsistent access to formal education, lack of relevant work experience/training while incarcerated as most in-prison work experience is for blue collar professions and manual labor, underfunded and outdated government supports for reentry, and family pressure. Additionally, some returning citizens are also navigating reentry with low literacy levels and poor typing skills, which can make computer use intimidating. | Their pilot study is built off the article "Digital Rehabilitation: A Model of Reentry Into the Digital Age" by Reisdorf and Rikard (2018), which offers a model for integrating digital literacy into the reentry process but is not an empirical study. | Researchers learned to begin digital literacy training with structured lessons rather than open labs to account for the varied levels of digital and traditional literacy among participants. | Ogbonnaya-Ogburu, I. F., Toyama, K., & Dillahunt, T. R. (2019, May). Towards an effective digital literacy intervention to assist returning citizens with job search. In Proceedings of the 2019 CHI conference on Human factors in computing systems (pp. 1-12). | (Ogbonnaya-Ogburu et al., 2019) |
| Journal article | Digital divide and marginalized women during COVID-19: a study of women recently released from prison | This study explores the impact of the pandemic on recently released women from jail or prison, a group already disadvantaged in terms of digital access and skills. Interviews with 45 transitioning women reveal that the lack of stable internet access and devices during the pandemic affected their post-incarceration requirements, job applications, and education. They relied on social connections and emergency resources for support, and those in transitional houses depended on facility staff or family/friends for pandemic-related information. These findings provide insights into the technological challenges faced by marginalized women during the public health crisis. | Digital divide and marginalized women during COVID-19: a study of women recently released from prison | 2021 | Digital equity, Digital divide, Digital inclusion | Incarcerated individuals | Other state(s) | Many of the women in the study relied on friends or family members for internet access or the use of a computer. Alternatively, they sometimes had to make do with limited functionality by using school laptops brought home by their children. The closure of libraries posed a significant challenge in terms of accessing printers, which hindered their ability to interview for jobs. Interestingly, several women mentioned that prison guards were their primary source of information while they were incarcerated. | The study highlighted the specific challenges faced by women who had been previously incarcerated, particularly during the pandemic, following their release. No measurement of success or criteria were defined. | Transitional houses often limit access to the internet and it makes applying for jobs difficult within the constraints. | The findings of this research are limited to a small group of women in three cities across two neighboring states, and they may not be representative of a broader population. Conducting a survey in more cities would provide a more comprehensive understanding of post-incarceration technology use among women in transition. A longitudinal study tracking changes in their technological needs and perspectives over time would also be valuable, as well as comparing their responses to those of other marginalized populations to gain insights into challenges and opportunities specific to this group. | Many community re-entry programs are directed towards men and women-focused digital divide needs more attention in this population. - Post-incarceration supervision - Employment opportunities - Online training | Blomberg, M., Altschwager, D., Seo, H., Booton, E., & Nwachukwu, M. (2021). Digital divide and marginalized women during COVID-19: a study of women recently released from prison. Information, Communication & Society, 24(14), 2113-2132. | (Bloomberg et al., 2021) | ||
| Journal article | Latino/a Children’s Digital Literacy Access and Online Reading Skills | This study investigates the digital literacy opportunities and online reading skills of Latino/a children in grades three to eight in a South Texas school district near the U.S.-Mexico border. Using a mixed methods approach, the study involves 310 children and five staff members from the Futuro school district. Despite having access to working computers and high-speed internet at home, most participants displayed low computer and online reading skills, with limited school emphasis on developing digital literacies such as online research and comprehension. | Latino/a Children’s Digital Literacy Access and Online Reading Skills | 2016 | Digital literacy, Digital divide, New literacies, online reading, Latino/a | K-12 | Other state(s) | The study findings match with national trends: limited digital access in school, language (Spanish vs English) was a barrier for students, low SES students were likely to use their phones and least likely to have a computer. | The success in this study was measured by analyzing technology access and skill levels among the participants. | The study acknowledged limitations in self-report data, highlighting challenges in verifying participant responses. Validity and reliability issues were identified in the survey implementation, including rushing through the survey and concerns about age appropriateness and language limitations. Limited access to instructional environments during the school day hindered direct observation and verification of information, impacting construct validity and data triangulation. | Prioritizing youth input, educators can engage in dialogue to determine access levels. In cases of limited access, educational institutions can allocate dedicated time and resources, including devices, to support interactive and inquiry-driven digital assignments. Furthermore, teacher preparation programs should equip future educators with the knowledge and skills to effectively utilize their personal devices for educational purposes. | Bussert-Webb, K., & Henry, L. (2016). Latino/a children’s digital literacy access and online reading skills. Journal of literacy and Technology, 17(3), 1-40. | (Bussert-Webb & Henry, 2016) | |||
| Journal article | The Dark(ish) Side of Digitization: Information Equity and the Digital Divide | The digitization of collections is often praised for its preservation advantages and its potential to enhance access to information. However, it is essential to critically examine these advancements in the context of the digital divide, which refers to the differential access and utilization of digital information and resources. There is a need to recognize the possibility that technological developments may worsen existing inequalities. This article provides an overview of the evolution of the digital divide concept and discusses its implications for library and information studies, institutions, and society at large. | The Dark(ish) Side of Digitization: Information Equity and the Digital Divide | 2016 | Digital divide, Digitization, information equity, social justice | People with low literacy, Racial or ethnic minorities, Aging populations, Low income populations | Nationwide (USA) | Highlights how and why public libraries play a significant role in especially covered populations' lives, who also might be digitally disadvantaged and libraries do not only give access to digital devices and internet but also provide training and education. | No specific measurements of success were defined. | Rrelying solely on public libraries to address the digital divide is inadequate when considering the larger sociopolitical context. Libraries themselves are affected by the digital divide, and even positive technological developments like collection digitization can unintentionally reinforce existing inequities. Therefore, the effectiveness of libraries in bridging the digital divide is called into question, highlighting the need to consider broader societal factors and potential unintended consequences of technological advancements. | Public libraries face challenges in providing access to digital information and resources. Despite increased demand and the need for technology and online resources, library funding is decreasing. Moreover, there are resource inequities within and between library systems on a global and local scale. These challenges hinder the ability of public libraries to meet the growing needs of their users. | There is a need to enhance collaboration with public libraries and provide additional training for staff members. Adequate funding is crucial to support these efforts and ensure the effective functioning of public libraries. | Cancro, P. (2016). The dark (ish) side of digitization: Information equity and the digital divide. The Serials Librarian, 71(1), 57-62. | (Cancro, 2016) | ||
| Journal article | Have we finally bridged the digital divide? smart phone and internet use patterns by race and ethnicity | This research reveals that the digital divide remains significant, with a similar magnitude to that of two decades ago. The study utilized responses from the Computer and Internet Use Supplement to the Current Population Survey (CPS) conducted in July 2015. The findings indicate that African-Americans and Latino-Americans, in particular, have lower rates of internet usage on digital devices, and the primary contributing factor is identified as low income. | Have we finally bridged the digital divide? Smart phone and Internet use patterns by race and ethnicity | 2017 | Digital divide | Racial or ethnic minorities, Low income populations | Nationwide (USA) | Several programs focus on increasing access to and reducing the cost of broadband service to low income families like E-Rate and Lifeline Programs and Comcast's Essentials programs but the future support of federal programs is unclear. Recently, the FCC has imposed some restrictions to low income broadband subsidies. Cost is not the only factor, so, policies should address more than income constraints, like Smart Communities Program in Chicago | This study examines patterns of smartphone and internet use by analyzing data from the Computer and Internet Use Supplement to the Current Population Survey. The survey involved interviews with approximately 50,000 households and 130,000 individuals, making it a comprehensive representation of the U.S. population. | N/A | N/A | N/A | Policies addressing technology constraints should extend beyond income considerations and encompass initiatives like community technology centers and comprehensive technology programs. | Fairlie, R. W. (2017). Have we finally bridged the digital divide? Smart phone and Internet use patterns by race and ethnicity. | (Fairlie, 2017) | |
| Journal article | Why we need a new approach to teaching digital literacy | Fact or fake? Identifying fake news - In recent years, various media organizations, newspapers, and policy advocates have made significant efforts to help Americans become more critical consumers of online information, particularly following the 2016 presidential election. While both K-12 and higher education institutions have implemented strategies to enhance information evaluation skills, the prevailing method of using checklists to assess website credibility is outdated. Instead, it is crucial to teach young individuals to emulate professional fact-checkers by conducting thorough web searches when encountering unfamiliar websites. This approach involves seeking additional information to uncover the site's creators and their underlying motives. | Why we need a new approach to teaching digital literacy | 2018 | Digital literacy | K-12 students | N/A | N/A | During the span of 18 months, a total of 7,804 responses were gathered in relation to tasks that required the evaluation of online content. These tasks ranged from assessing Facebook posts to investigating the origin of partisan websites. Students of various age groups encountered significant difficulties throughout this process. Middle school students often mistook advertisements for genuine news stories, while high school students struggled to verify social media accounts. College students, on the other hand, readily accepted a website's self-proclaimed description without further verification. | Prominent digital literacy organizations in the United States and Canada employ checklists, typically consisting of 10 to 30 questions, to teach students how to evaluate the credibility of online sources. These checklists serve as fact-checkers and aid in assessing the trustworthiness of information. In the study, CRAAP (Currency = The timelines of the information, Relevance= The importance of the information for the reader's needs, Authority = the source of the information, Accuracy = the reliability, truthfulness, and correctness of the content, Purpose = the reason the information exists) test was applied. Readers used this test to evaluate online content. | - Teaching students to evaluate online information will require a team effort and substantial amounts of time. It cannot be addressed through a one-off lesson or the efforts of a single teacher or librarian. - Students will need reinforcement from across the curriculum to become adept at distinguishing between credible and spurious information. Different subject teachers, such as science, English, math, and history, must contribute to teaching critical evaluation skills. - Teachers need professional development to evaluate online information effectively and integrate digital strategies into their classrooms. - There is a challenge of teachers mistaking students' fluency with digital devices for sophistication in judging the information yielded by those devices. - The checklist approach, while previously questioned, needs to be updated and enhanced to address the threats present in the digital landscape. | Breakstone, J., McGrew, S., Smith, M., Ortega, T., & Wineburg, S. (2018). Why we need a new approach to teaching digital literacy. Phi Delta Kappan, 99(6), 27-32. | (Breakstone et al., 2018) | |||
| Journal article | The Digital Divide in Health-Related Technology Use: The Significance of Race/Ethnicity | This study examines the use of technology for health purposes among older adults from different racial/ethnic backgrounds. The researchers analyze nationally representative data from 1,336 white, black, and Hispanic adults aged 54 and older. The study aims to determine if there are any racial/ethnic differences in the overall use of technology for health and specific technological tools such as phone calls, text messages, emails, social media, health management sites, health-related mobile applications, web searches, and brain games. The findings from this analysis can provide insights into potential disparities in health-related technology use among older adults of different racial/ethnic groups. | The Digital Divide in Health-Related Technology Use: The Significance of Race/Ethnicity | 2019 | Health disparities, minority issues, Cohort differences | Racial or ethnic minorities, Aging populations | Nationwide (USA) | The findings show that Older blacks and Hispanics have lower rates of using technology for health-related purposes compared to whites, even when accounting for demographic factors, education, and health conditions. Specifically, they are less likely to engage in activities such as making or receiving phone calls, using health management sites, searching the web for health information, and using brain games for their health. These findings emphasize the significance of recognizing disparities in health-related technology use among racially and ethnically diverse populations. It underscores the need for targeted interventions that address minority health and work towards reducing health disparities. | All the variables in the study were based on self-reported data provided by the respondents. They were asked to indicate their use of various technologies for health purposes in the past month, including phone calls, text messages, video chats, emails, social media, health management sites, health-related mobile applications, internet searches, and brain games. A cumulative count of the technologies used was calculated to represent the overall inclination towards using technology for health. | - The study could not distinguish between technology access and use, potentially influencing the findings. - Self-reported data may be subject to response bias and did not assess technology proficiency or frequency of use. - The cross-sectional design limits the ability to make causal claims and examine changes in health-related technology use over time. - Future research should include separate measures for technology access and use, incorporate additional dimensions of technology use, and utilize longitudinal data. - Addressing these limitations will contribute to a more comprehensive understanding of health-related technology use among older adults. | The findings underscore the importance of further research to explore patterns of health-related technology use among older adults from different racial and ethnic backgrounds. It is crucial to identify the factors that facilitate or hinder the adoption of various technologies within these groups. Such research can inform the development of culturally sensitive interventions that leverage technologies preferred by older racial and ethnic minorities, potentially contributing to the reduction of health disparities. This approach represents one among several strategies to employ technology in addressing the unique health challenges faced by diverse aging populations. | Mitchell, U. A., Chebli, P. G., Ruggiero, L., & Muramatsu, N. (2019). The Digital Divide in Health-Related Technology Use: The Significance of Race/Ethnicity. The Gerontologist, 59(1), 6–14. https://doi.org/10.1093/geront/gny138 | (Mitchell et al., 2019) | |||
| Journal article | Empowering English Language Learners through Digital Literacies: Research, Complexities, and Implications | "Despite immigrants’ attraction to the US, the tension between the public school system and emergent bilingual students has garnered broad attention. There is a need for a more appropriate teaching pedagogy that embraces the cultural identities of ELLs, and empowers ELLs as critical consumers and producers of information. Though complex, the authors advocate for examining this issue using an asset perspective rather than a deficit lens. Using the sociocultural perspective of learning and critical theory, this paper aims to define and conceptualize ELL learning, establish a shared vision of digital literacies, and review the literature on how practices of digital literacies empower ELLs to become active learners. In the final section, implications and future research directions are articulated in order to move the digital literacy field forward." (Abstract) | Empowering English Language Learners through Digital Literacies: Research, Complexities, and Implications | 2018 | Digital literacy, Digital divide, critical theory, English language learners | English learners/not native speakers | Nationwide (USA) | Presents what can be done to empower ELLs in the United States: - Access to appropriate content and tools enables English Language Learners (ELLs) to navigate online sources, improve vocabulary and writing skills, and enhance digital literacy. - Utilizing software that prioritizes writing over multimedia enhancements allows students to collaborate online, overcoming challenges and receiving timely feedback. - Teachers can promote digital literacies by guiding language learners to find and engage with online communities related to their personal interests outside of school. | Additional research is needed to assess the awareness and actions of school leadership and administration regarding the use of technology to support teachers and English Language Learners (ELLs). The ISTE Standards offer a framework for creating innovative digital learning environments, but their implementation and effectiveness in empowering ELLs through digital literacies require further investigation. It is crucial to understand the extent to which school leaders prioritize technology integration and provide support for ELLs. This knowledge can contribute to the development of supportive digital environments at the school level, benefiting both teachers and ELLs. | Yuan, C., Wang, L., & Eagle, J. (2019). Empowering English language learners through digital literacies: Research, complexities, and implications. Media and Communication, 7(2), 128-136. | (Yuan et al, 2019) | |||||
| Journal article, Program or Initiative | Locked In and Locked Out: How COVID-19 Is Making the Case for Digital Inclusion of Incarcerated Populations | This study looked at COVID impacts on incarcerated people's access to technology. It reviewed selected states' (California, Maine, New York City, and Pennsylvania) programs to increase digital equity among its incarcerated populations. | Locked In and Locked Out: How COVID-19 Is Making the Case for Digital Inclusion of Incarcerated Populations | 2023 | Digital equity, Digital divide, Digital inclusion | Incarcerated individuals | Other state(s) | One state, Maine, has implemented free video calls on tablets for inmates to stay connected with their families, and they have also introduced educational Zoom classes for inmates. This digital inclusion initiative has shown promising results in reducing recidivism rates and supporting successful reintegration into society. In contrast, incarcerated individuals with limited access to technology or the internet face greater challenges in their transition. Additionally, prison tablet programs provided by companies like JPay and GTL offer incarcerated individuals access to educational materials. | Through the number of correctional facilities and customers: GTL (Global Tel Link) serves 1,900 correctional facility customers across all 50 states, including Washington, D.C., and Puerto Rico. JPay, on the other hand, is available in 1,200 correctional facilities across 40 states. | In most cases, incarcerated individuals have to pay for digitized books they access. | When implementing programs to bridge the digital divide among incarcerated individuals, it is important to recognize that requiring them or their families to pay for communication, educational resources, and entertainment content is morally unjust. This is especially true during a pandemic when they already face economic and health-related challenges due to their disadvantaged backgrounds. Such practices would not effectively bridge the gap and address the inequalities they experience. | Reisdorf, B. C. (2023). Locked In and Locked Out: How COVID-19 Is Making the Case for Digital Inclusion of Incarcerated Populations. American Behavioral Scientist, 00027642231155369. | (Reisdorf, 2023) | |||
| Journal article | Hispanic-serving Institutions and Web Accessibility: Digital Equity for Hispanic students with disabilities in the 21st Century | "This study sought to evaluate the web accessibility of Hispanic-Serving Institutional (HSI) websites (n = 217). Results suggest that the average HSI website landing page included 447 errors, violating Athemericans with Disabilities Act. Most errors were related to font size, color contrast, and hyperlinks and pictures." (Abstract) | Hispanic-serving institutions and web accessibility: Digital Equity for Hispanic students with disabilities in the 21st Century | 2019 | Hispanic-Serving Institutions, students with disabilities, web accessibility, people with disabilities, Hispanic students, technology, websites, Internet | People with disabilities, Racial or ethnic minorities | Nationwide (USA) | - The study analyzed web accessibility errors of homepages/landing pages for HSIs (n=217) and presented the findings in Table 3. - The average HSI website had 447.6 WCAG 2.0 errors, ranging from the most (1,728 errors) to the least errors (53 errors). - Public, 2-year institutions published the most web-accessible websites, while private, 4-year institutions had the least web-accessible websites. - Level A errors were more common than Level AA errors across all institutional sectors. - The five most abundant web accessibility errors were Level A 1.1.1, Level A 1.3.1, Level AA 1.4.4, Level A 2.4.4, and Level A 4.1.2. - These errors accounted for over 85% of all errors in the study, highlighting their significance in impeding digital accessibility for people with disabilities. - Only 7.8% of HSI websites in the sample were accessible enough for a student with a disability to navigate to the first-year/undergraduate admissions instructions webpage. - Notable HSI websites with strong digital equity included the University of California at Santa Cruz and Caribbean University campuses. - Otero Junior College's website had the most WCAG errors but was still deemed accessible; however, it rendered the undergraduate admissions webpage inaccessible for users with disabilities. | The study utilized a previous re-entry model and created a new digital rehabilitioan model (see column T). There are not any specific measurements. | Sample size limitation: The study only analyzed 217 HSI websites out of a larger pool of recognized HSIs, which limits the generalizability of the findings. Analysis methods limitation: The study employed the use of Tenon™ and Voiceover as analysis methods, which may not cover the full range of assistive technologies used by students with disabilities. This limitation restricts the understanding of web accessibility barriers faced by different individuals with diverse disabilities. Scope of webpages analyzed: The study focused on evaluating the web accessibility of HSI websites but did not cover the entirety of individual webpages within each website. This limitation overlooks the potential accessibility issues that may exist on specific pages, such as financial aid or student affairs pages. Potential bias: The study suggests the need for future research to compare the web accessibility of HSIs to predominantly White institutions. This raises the possibility of bias in evaluating accessibility based on institution type. | Better web designs are needed. Moreover, future researchers should focus on improving web accessibility, studying the experiences of Hispanic students with disabilities, and providing practical recommendations to promote digital equity and inclusive higher education environments. | Taylor, Z. W., & Burnett, C. A. (2021). Hispanic-Serving Institutions and web accessibility: Digital equity for Hispanic students with disabilities in the 21st Century. Journal of Hispanic Higher Education, 20(4), 402-421. | (Taylor & Butnett, 2021) | |||
| White Paper | Digital Rehabilitation in Re-Entry Programs | The purpose of this article is to explore the relationship between rehabilitation theory and digital inequality, particularly through the lens of the corresponding fields model. It aims to provide an understanding of how digital and offline realms of society intersect with digital media and Internet use. Additionally, the article presents the findings of a study conducted with prisoners, highlighting the impact of limited digital technology skills on individuals who have experienced incarceration. Overall, the article seeks to synthesize rehabilitation theory with digital inequality research and shed light on the consequences of digital exclusion in specific contexts. | Digital Rehabilitation: A Model of Reentry Into the Digital Age | 2018 | Digital equity, Digital divide | Incarcerated individuals | International | This study successfully integrated rehabilitation theory with the corresponding fields model of digital inequality. It developed a model of digital rehabilitation that recognizes the importance of digital skills during the reentry process of former prisoners. The study highlighted the challenges faced by former prisoners, including limited resources, support, and employable skills. It also addressed the opposition to Internet access in prisons and emphasized the need for a more comprehensive approach to support successful prisoner reentry. Overall, this study achieved a better understanding of the role of digital factors in rehabilitation and reentry, calling for improved practices and research in this area. | The study utilized a previous re-entry model and created a new digital rehabilitioan model (see column T). There are not any specific measurements. | The study was limited by a lack of empirical data and a narrow scope focused solely on Northern Ireland and England. | for a better understanding of this population and digital divide among them, gathering more data, conducting larger-scale studies, and considering a broader range of factors that influence digital exclusion and inequalities are needed. For re-entring individuals, effective digital skills training and interventions are needed. | Reisdorf, B. C., & Rikard, R. V. (2018). Digital rehabilitation: A model of reentry into the digital age. American Behavioral Scientist, 62(9), 1273-1290. | (Reisdorf & Rikard,2018) | |||
| Program or Initiative | Grow with Google / Justice-Impacted Communities (formerly Grow with Google Career Readiness for Reentry program) | Google has partnered with various community organizations to provide digital literacy and job readiness training to formerly incarcerated individuals and other "justice-impacted people." They list partners in 25 states, including North Carolina. They claim to have trained 10,000 people during the 2021 pilot programs. | Overview: Digital skills training for people impacted by the justice system ; Program report: Practitioner’s Guide Grow with Google digital skills curriculum and workshops for justice-impacted communities; List of partnering organizations: Justice-Impacted Community Partners | 2021 | Digital literacy, Digital skills | Incarcerated individuals, Low income populations | Nationwide (USA) | Urban, Suburban, Rural | The digital literacy and digital skills training improved participants' feelings of confidence related to technology and job preparedness. | Program evaluation is primarily done through testimonial from five case studies taken from their five founding partners; they also report that 80% of participants report improvement in their digital skills and career readiness, 93% are confident they can learn how to use digital tools they will need in the future, and 57% used what they learned to apply for a new job or new position, but it is unclear where/how they collected these statistics. | The organization did not share their shortcomings or obstacles in their report. | The organization did not share their shortcomings or obstacles in their report. | Grow with Google continues to give more money to its existing partnering organizations and is actively recruiting new partners. | A best practice is connecting organizations that share a mission, amplifying their reach by that share from the mega-organization, Google. | Grow With Google. (2023). Digital skills training for people impacted by the justice system. Grow with Google/Justice Impacted. https://grow.google/justice-impacted/ | (Grow With Google, 2023) |
| Website | Closing the K–12 Digital Divide in The Age of Distance Learning | The article represents statistical information about technology access nationwide.The digital divide affects every type of community, but it is more pronounced in rural communities and for Black, Latinx, and Native American households; 18 percent of white households lack broadband, but 26 percent of Latinx, 30 percent of Black and 35 percent of Native American student households lack adequate home internet access. In rural communities, 37 percent of students are without a home broadband connection compared with 25 percent in suburban households and 21 percent in urban areas. | Closing the K–12 Digital Divide in The Age of Distance Learning | 2020 | Digital divide | General population | Nationwide (USA) | The analysis highlights four crucial components for successful distance learning: high-speed internet, appropriate devices (excluding cell phones), tailored instructional content, and comprehensive support. While internet access is widespread, not all services meet the demands of distance learning. Students and teachers require suitable devices, and teachers' connectivity and access to devices affect classroom capabilities. Tailored instructional content and quality technical support are vital. Product availability constraints, such as Chromebooks, impact schools' technology choices. Furthermore, the study underscores that the impact of the digital divide extends across the entire community, with greater effects observed in rural areas and among individuals from racial/ethnic minorities. | The article focuses on statistical findings given below, that illustrate the digital gap in education, although it does not specifically mention any measurement for assessing digital skills. - Before the pandemic, 15 to 16 million K-12 public school students in the US lacked internet connection or adequate devices for distance learning, representing 30% of all public K-12 students. - Approximately 9 million students lived in households without adequate internet connection or devices for distance learning. - The student digital divide is a significant issue in all 50 states, with rural communities and Black, Latinx, and Native American households being more affected. - In rural communities, 37% of students lack home broadband connection, compared to 25% in suburban areas and 21% in urban areas. - Texas, California, and Florida have the highest populations of students without internet connectivity among the top 10 states with the largest number of disconnected students. - Lack of home internet and devices also affects teachers, with around 8% lacking adequate connectivity and 3% lacking devices, limiting the potential for distance learning for entire classrooms. | What can/should be done: Policy makers: Congress must also take long-term action and invest funding to upgrade and close gaps in U.S. broadband infrastructure. Districts: Define digital education long-term aspirations and objectives and identify the necessary technology, infrastructure and capabilities to enable that vision. Private sector: Help deliver, prioritize and support education technology needs. Network providers and device manufacturers must provide transparent, discounted and consistent prices across all districts. Education organizations/nonprofits: Build data, coordination and support to systematically address gaps. With so many districts facing a similar issue, it is important to apply a collaborative rather than a competitive mindset. For example, states such as Texas, California and Connecticut are developing models for cross-district collaboration to ensure all districts get what they need. | Chandra, S., Chang, A., Day, L., Fazlullah, A., Liu, J., McBride, L., ... & Weiss, D. (2020). Closing the K–12 digital divide in the age of distance learning. Common Sense and Boston Consulting Group: Boston, MA, USA. | (Chandra et al., 2020) | ||||
| Journal article | Determinants of Broadband Access and affordability: An analysis of a community survey on the digital divide | "This paper focuses on the five key affordability factors (geographical disparities, competition, profit-based discrimination, technology deployment cost, socio-economic factors [income, education, race, and age]) that drive broadband adoption. Researchers test social exclusion theory, the structural facets of poverty and social marginality to ascertain its potential impact on broadband access. The authors conducted a survey in both English and Spanish (in San Antonio) to learn more about the affordability factors that influence the broadband digital divide. Through our analysis, we found evidence that four of the factors (geographical disparities, profit-based discrimination, technology deployment cost, and socio-economic factors) played a role in the digital divide in this case study." (Abstarct) | Determinants of Broadband Access and affordability: An analysis of a community survey on the digital divide | 2020 | Digital divide, Survey research Broadband Internet access Community survey Affordability Social exclusion theory | English learners/not native speakers, Racial or ethnic minorities | Other state(s) | Rural | The study presents five key indicators that affect the broadband access and are needed to be addressed: - High cost can be discouraging for private companies to connect areas with low population density in small or rural areas - There is competition in the telecommunications services in urban areas but this competition is low in rural areas and this increases the service cost - Minority households -when there is low demand for broadband service- increase the rural broadband service cost - Deployment of broadband technology can be expensive. Offering broadband services in a local area requires investment; local areas are only enabled for broadband when the expected stream of future profits. However, this expectation results in unaffordable service - The poor, the less educated, and non-whites are on the disconnected side of the divide. High cost is #1 reason that restricts broadband service | A community survey (Digital Inclusion Survey and Assessment) was conducted to investigate digital access and inclusion in Bexar County, Texas, including San Antonio, the 7th largest city in the US by population. They also mapped the broadband access based on ZIP codes. | The stuidy focused on a single city, limiting the generalizability of the results to other cities or international contexts. | - The study acknowledges that the sample is slightly skewed towards higher-income categories, despite efforts to include underserved low-income and minority residents. - Suggestions for future research include expanding the study to other cities, comparing responses with neighboring cities like Austin, conducting follow-up interviews with respondents without broadband access, and exploring changes in access and usage due to the COVID-19 era. | To bridge the digital divide, inclusive public policies must target underlying factors and provide broadband access, especially during the COVID-19 pandemic. Efforts to combat poverty should focus on education, job-skills training, and policies addressing technical challenges. These findings inform inclusive policy development in San Antonio and serve as a reference for other communities. The identified factors offer a framework for studying the digital divide globally. | Reddick, C. G., Enriquez, R., Harris, R. J., & Sharma, B. (2020). Determinants of Broadband Access and affordability: An analysis of a community survey on the digital divide. Cities, 106, 102904. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cities.2020.102904 | (Reddick et al., 2020) | |
| Journal article | Digital Divide: Marked Disparities in Computer and Broadband Internet Use and Associated Health Inequalities in the United States | Although computer and internet use has significantly risen in the last two decades, there has been limited research exploring the socioeconomic, demographic, and health factors related to their usage in the United States. Moreover, there is a lack of analysis regarding community-level disparities in computer and internet use and their impact on health and mortality indicators. This unique study aims to fill these gaps by examining these associations using national census, health, and mortality data. Specifically, the study explores the correlation between computer use and life expectancy, providing valuable insights into this relationship. | Digital Divide: Marked Disparities in Computer and Broadband Internet Use and Associated Health Inequalities in the United States | 2020 | Digital divide, Broadband internet, computer use, disability, health insurance, cause-specific mortality, morbidity, health behaviors | General public | Nationwide (USA) | Socioeconomic disparities in internet and computer usage were observed in 2017. Asian/Pacific Islanders had the highest rate of broadband internet accessibility at 89.7%, while American Indians/Alaska Natives had the lowest rate at 66.0%. API individuals also had the highest computer ownership or usage at 97.4%, whereas AIANs had a lower rate of 80.3%. Lower rates of internet and computer usage were reported by individuals below the poverty level and those with less than a high school education. Nonmetropolitan areas had lower internet access (69.7%) and computer use (80.5%) compared to metropolitan areas (80.3% and 88.4% respectively). Limited access to broadband internet and computers was associated with increased risks of disabilities, lack of health insurance, and negative health outcomes. Communities with low internet and computer usage had a shorter life expectancy and higher mortality rates from chronic conditions, poor health, mental distress, hospitalization, smoking, obesity, and physical inactivity. | By comparing race/ethnicity and socioeconomic factors and the binary outcomes of broadband internet access, computer use, disability, and health insurance indicators | N/A | - The study provides limited analysis of health and healthcare disparities at the individual level due to the limited availability of health-related variables in the dataset. - The study does not include information on various health outcomes such as chronic conditions, poor physical health, mental distress, hospitalization, affordability of healthcare costs, patient-provider communication, difficulty obtaining healthcare due to transportation, satisfaction with healthcare, smoking, obesity, and physical inactivity among individuals without broadband and computer access. - The study may not account for all racial/ethnic and socioeconomic gaps related to the uptake of healthcare technology. - The potential negative health outcomes of utilizing telehealth are not addressed, such as the risk of misdiagnosis or neglecting the severity of health issues when in-person care is required. | Bridging the social divide in internet and computer access has the potential to yield significant benefits, including enhanced individual empowerment, improved educational attainment, increased economic growth, stronger community development, better access to healthcare and health-related information, and more effective health promotion efforts. | Singh, G. K., Girmay, M., Allender, M., & Christine, R. T. (2020). Digital Divide: Marked disparities in computer and broadband internet use and associated health inequalities in the United States. International Journal of Translational Medical Research and Public Health, 4(1), 64–79. https://doi.org/10.21106/ijtmrph.148 | (Singh et al., 2020) | ||
| Journal article | Digital Exclusion and Divide in the United States: Exploratory Empirical Analysis of Contributing Factors | The study analyzes the influence of income, income distribution, education levels, and ethnicity on levels of access to Internet using the 2016 US census data census data at the county level. | Digital Exclusion and Divide in the United States: Exploratory Empirical Analysis of Contributing Factors | 2020 | Digital divide, Digital exclusion, Internet access | All populations | Nationwide (USA) | The study suggests: 1- Digital divide expressed as lack of Internet access continues to be a serious concern in the United States with nearly 15% of the households without Internet access. Although this has declined from the 20% plus levels a decade earlier, the reduction is well below expectations, 2 - The key correlates of low Internet access appear to be low levels of income and education, skewed income distribution, and higher proportion of disadvantaged minority population, 3 - A comparison of the results with previous studies lend credence to the conjecture that many of the digital have-nots are increasingly entrenched in a cycle of poverty and low skill and education levels. The lack of access to Internet leads to a situation of disadvantage in which they are shut off from critical information and services. This leads to a vicious cycle over time. This cycle can only be broken through a concerted intervention by government and private agencies to improve access and enhance relevant skills | Davis, J. G., Kuan, K. K., & Poon, S. (2020). Digital exclusion and divide in the United States: exploratory empirical analysis of contributing factors. | (Davis et al., 2020) | ||||||
| Program or Initiative | Advancing Digital Equity for All: Community-Based Recommendations for Developing Effective Digital Equity Plans to Close the Digital Divide and Enable Technology-Empowered Learning | This nonprofit has a wide range of programs and research for incarcerated individuals, one particular program is "second chance college" opportunities in jails. They work to connect second chance pell grants to expanding access to educational opportunities and creating computer labs in prisons to enable this. | Advancing Digital Equity for All: Community-Based Recommendations for Developing Effective Digital Equity Plans to Close the Digital Divide and Enable Technology-Empowered Learning | 2022 | Digital equity, Digital literacy, Digital skills | Incarcerated individuals | Nationwide (USA) | The computer labs are effective because it allows prisoners access to some basic internet and computer skills, such as keeping a monitored email account, which is uncommon in most prisons even today. It also allows participants access to online learning platforms. | North Carolina is piloting a similar program in the state: https://www.beaufortccc.edu/blog/2023/02/08/state-awards-usd1-4-million-to-expand-digital-equity-and-literacy-initiatives-at-correctional-institutes | U.S. Department of Education, Office of Educational Technology. (2022). Advancing Digital Equity for All: Community-Based Recommendations for Developing Effective Digital Equity Plans to Close the Digital Divide and Enable Technology-Empowered Learning, Washington, DC. | (U.S. Department of Education, 2022). | |||||
| Program or Initiative | Digital Navigation and Workforce Development Reentry Support Program | PSF is part of a reentry program for the state of Washington that is distributing laptops and one year of free internet connection to transitioning formerly incarcerated individuals. | PSF's Digital Equity Program - Prison Scholar Fund | 2023 | Digital equity, Digital literacy, Digital divide | Incarcerated individuals | Other state(s) | Not only is it an access program (distributing a free laptop and covering internet bill for a year), it also includes digital skill workshops for community re-entry including job skills training, social services navigation, housing and basic needs navigation, GED and legal services navigation. They also have an additional coding bootcamp for individuals with a desire to move into a tech job. | Testimonials from former participants | Prison Scholars Fund. (2023). Our work and impact. https://www.prisonscholars.org/what-we-do/our-work-impact/ | (Prison Scholars Fund, 2023) | |||||
| Website | Guiding Principles for Use of Technology with Early Learners | Under objective 2, the US Office of Educational Technology points out a digital divide in early childhood education. In particular, they make the distinction between passive technology use (more often seen in lower income populations) and active technology use in preschools (more often seen in higher income populations). They find when early childhood teachers use technology in an active way with their students, it can help to close certain behavioral and academic gaps that appear when mostly just higher income students receive active technology use. | Guiding Principles for Use of Technology with Early Learners | 2016 | Digital equity, Digital divide, Digital inclusion | Low income populations | Nationwide (USA) | Using apps designed for children with disabilities in early childhood education settings can help make the shift in active technology use instead of passive technology use. Encouraging early childhood education teachers to use technology actively can help bridge home-life environment differences between higher income and lower income students. Additionally, other apps can help bridge divides between multi-language learners in early education settings and children who are English-native speakers. | U.S. Department of Education, Office of Educational Technology. (n.d.). Early Learning and Educational Technology Policy Brief: Principles for Using Educational Technology to Increase School Readiness and Enhance Family Engagement. Retrieved May 3, 2023, from https://tech.ed.gov/earlylearning/principles/ | (U.S. Department of Education, Office of Educational Technology, n.d.) | ||||||
| Website, Program or Initiative | GPS and garbage trucks: Mapping digital divides in U.S. cities | This initiative is to address the digital divide in certain U.S. using GPS devices on garbage trucks. This is to address and take initiative on expanding digital issues in low income communities using useful resources in the area of Shreveport, Illinois. Also, how many households have paid for internet services. | GPS and garbage trucks: Mapping digital divides in U.S. cities | 2021 | Digital equity, Digital literacy, Digital divide, Digital inclusion | Rural residents, Low income populations | Other state(s) | Rural | To have a clear picture of the truck routes and their connectivity, they used 'WIFI sensors'. From the data in these sensors they were able to receive 200,000 USD of grant funding from a local power company to help out in Wi-Fi infrastructure. With these findings, the city is pushing for a city-wide community network and more coding programs for marginalized communities interested in tech. The city also starting a coding program called Tech Talent South and are proud to have embedded many minorities into the training and receive employment or certification. | Success was measured through data received from the Wi-Fi sensors on each garbage truck, diverse enrollment in the Tech Talent South program, and city leadership. The data from the wi-fi sensors helped gain a better outlook on who need better at home connectivity and internet. The Tech Talent South Program was able to train coding and tech to many "people of color" giving access to more opportunities along. | The push for a city-wide wifi network, a free connectivity option, and fiber-to-the-home network was not as successful. City leaders are still seeking funding and possible grants to incorporate this method. | The policy barriers and decisions of city leaders cooperating with other internet providers is an barrier. Having city leaders make a city wide free network will need cooperation from different internet providers and establishing that bandwidth all throughout the city. | The Tech Talent South Program in partnership of this article to help with coding employment throughout the city is an important aspect and find. | Utilizing nearby and local resources to detect how many networks and paid internet is in areas throughout the city is a well thought of practice. This pushed for more funding to expand internet and create a training for digital literacy. | ITU News. (2021, February 19). GPS and garbage trucks: Mapping digital divides in U.S. cities. ITU. https://www.itu.int/hub/2021/02/gps-and-garbage-trucks-mapping-digital-divides-in-u-s-cities/ | (ITU News, 2021) |
| Journal article | Splicing the Divide: A Review of Research on the Evolving Digital Divide Among K–12 Students | This study reviews empirical studies, theoretical articles, research reviews, and government surveys in the US to present a renewed overview of digital divide, explore underlying causes of unequal technology use, suggest directions for future research and implications. | Splicing the Divide: A Review of Research on the Evolving Digital Divide Among K–12 Students | 2015 | Digital literacy, Digital divide, Equity, technology use | Rural residents, Low income populations | Nationwide (USA) | The study presents suggestions: - The study revealed the cans and can-nots for students from high and low SES (low SES internet access is 49%, high SES is 96%, and Asian Americans have the highest home internet use). - In order to leverage the literacy knowledge and practices that students bring with them to school, school districts not only must offer teachers the time and resources they need to implement effective instruction, but must enact district policies that support and enhance curricula that integrate technology. - Culturally and linguistically diverse students, low-income students, and students with disabilities deserve the same opportunity to use technology in ways that are productive and inclusive and that allow for their diverse perspectives to be heard, and fostered to leverage their potential as producers of technology. - Mobile technology redefines access (many students now have access to technology through smartphones, and other devices like MP3 players, tablets, e-readers, portable game systems, and smart watches. 56% of students in 6-8th grade and 68% of students in 9-12th grade have access to internet via the mobile devices they have.) - Lack of support from school administrations, negative attitudes of staff and their lack of digital skills, problems with access, time, space, supervision, and poor software, curriculum integration difficulties, and lack of technical support were other factors that impacted digital skills and equity in schools. - The difference between low and high SES: a common finding reports that students in low-SES schools use computers more than high SES schools students but mostly to drill and practice, not for higher order thinking required activities and learnings. | Dolan, J. E. (2016). Splicing the divide: A review of research on the evolving digital divide among K–12 students. Journal of Research on Technology in Education, 48(1), 16-37. | (Dolan, 2016) | ||||||
| Program or Initiative | Open Access Network in Mount Vernon, Washington Created More Jobs and Government Savings | In Mount Vernon, Washington for the past decade the city has been expanding fiber optic networks in rural communities. The network is serving hospitals, clinics, government offices, schools, and broad ranges of businesses. This range of fiber is open to citizens as well paying a one time fee to be connected to the city. | Open Access Network in Mount Vernon, Washington Created More Jobs and Government Savings | 2014 | Digital equity, Digital divide | Rural residents | Other state(s) | Rural | This network opportunity is an open access model on which ISPs serve customers via the city's infrastructure. Subscribers pay a one time fee to the city to be connected. Ongoing revenue comes from the ISPs, who pay to the city a percentage of what they collect in customer connectivity fees. With this ample connection Mount Vernon has been able to save up to $100,000.00 each year instead of paying for private competitive internet companies. | Through the city's review of savings and revenue, they were able to calculate how much savings through the fiber optic initiative received yearly. Based on the internet expenses calculated, their success is defined as savings and revenue. | Mount Vernon did not expand this internet to retail services, and kept it as a public service for all citizens - and serving businesses. | Retail offices often use their own private internet network and not public networks. The city district will need to work with retail offices to expand this availability and possibly collaborate with private internet fiber companies. | Related research findings will be in rural areas having public citywide fiber optics.. | There is great practice in the amount of money saves each year for creating public fiber optics internet. | Community Networks. (2018). Open Access Network in Mount Vernon, Washington Created More Jobs and Government Savings. https://communitynets.org/content/open-access-network-mount-vernon-washington-created-more-jobs-and-government-savings | (Community Networks, 2018) |
| Program or Initiative | Connect in Mount Vernon: The Right Bandwidth | In recognition of challenging and costly internet services and bandwidth, the city of Mount Vernon, Washington has created their own fiber optics technology to provide public internet services. It is called their Fiber Infrastructure for citizens, business, and local offices. It allocates and provides broadband Internet access, VoIp, voice-on-demand (VOD), interactive video, medical imaging, Application Service Provider (ASP) services, Cloud computing and server farm growth. | Connect in Mount Vernon: The Right Bandwidth | 2023 | Digital equity | Rural residents | Other state(s) | Rural | The fiber optic internet is bidirectional and works fast for downloading and uploading material. This is an Open Service Provider Network, which will allow as many private service providers in a fair competition throughout the city. Mount Vernon has also partnered with the Burlington and Port of Skagit areas- which has been build and will continue to expand throughout the different cities/areas. | The success of this fiber optic service is defined as the amount of savings throughout the city from having this service, building those savings to create more infrastructure, and how flexible the services in different companies are used for (water, sewage, farms, and other services like power) | There is still a large amount of internet competition in rural areas with other private services. This program does not show enough information on where their future goals are into spreading this fiber optic infrastructure to other parts of Washington. | Many retail offices are not able to connect to this service and will need to use another private internet provider. | Fiber optic services and free Wi-Fi in certain cities and states. | 1. Building city wide fiber optic infrastructure and a low cost for people living in the city, hospitals/clinics, government facilities, and other businesses who would like to buy. 2. This is an example on building internet infrastructure in rural communities and farms. | City of Mount Vernon, Washington. (n.d.). The technology project: Building a better Mount Vernon through technology. Retrieved from https://mountvernonwa.gov/DocumentCenter/View/863/technology-publication?bidId= | (City of Mount Vernon, Washington. (n.d.) |
| Program or Initiative | Westminster, Md., Partners with Private Sector to Broaden Fiber-Optic Network | Westminster, Maryland partnered with a private sector - Ting network- to increase fiber optic internet throughout rural areas of the city. This was completed through funding of the SunTrust bond ($21million) to Bolton Hill, Cliveden Reach, Village of Meadow Creek, Whispering Meadows, Furnace Hills, Eagle View Estates, Fenby Farm, Avondale Run, Wakefield Valley and closely surrounding neighborhoods. These are rural areas throughout the city. | Westminster, Md., Partners with Private Sector to Broaden Fiber-Optic Network | 2015 | Digital divide | Rural residents | Other state(s) | Rural | The fiber optic network is a partnership with an private sector internet service designated to rural areas, farms, and residents who need fast internet. | The entrustment of a secure bond with the SunTrust Bank helped expand the city's internet access for residents. The city has made the commitment to its residents and businesses that whoever wants a fiber drop to their property will receive one. | The current rates for the internet can increase and become less affordable over time. Having a bond like this with a bank can be very costly in just a few years depending on how many residents and business buy the internet in order for the city to pay it back. | The idea of taking out a bond will be at the expense of how many residents can pay for internet and when the price for it increases over time. This is an low income barrier in rural areas and can hinder the economic value of the internet over time. | Partnering with a secure bank to collaborate with private internet sectors in order to expand internet fiber optic service. | GovTech. (2018, February 23). Westminster, Md., Partners With Private Sector to Broaden Fiber-Optic Network. Retrieved from https://www.govtech.com/dc/articles/westminster-md-partners-with-private-sector-to-broaden-fiber-optic-network.html | (GovTech, 2018) | |
| Program or Initiative | Digital Navigator Program | Organized by the Washington State Department of Veterans Affairs, the Digital Navigator Program is a grant-funded program through the Department of Commerce that provides eligible Veterans or their families with a kit containing two years of talk, text, and data through T-Mobile, a Samsung Chromebook and a REVVL 5G phone with hotspot-enabled capability. The program launched March 2023, and, so far, the team serviced 45 Veterans in Washington. They will also provide digital literacy training, and other related assistance to veterans and their families. | Digital Navigator Program | 2023 | Digital equity, Digital literacy, Digital inclusion | Veterans, Rural residents, Racial or ethnic minorities, Aging populations, Low income populations | Other state(s) | Rural | Not sure yet. The program just started in March 2023, so they have not collected/shared data beyond the number of current participants (45). | It's too early to tell. | It's too early to tell. | It's too early to tell. | N/A | It's too early to tell. | Washington State Department of Veterans Affairs. (n.d.). Digital navigator program. https://www.dva.wa.gov/veterans-service-members-and-their-families/digital-navigator-program | (Washington State Department of Veterans Affairs, n.d.) |
| Website | County Now Hopes to Use Troubled Fiber Optic Network for New ‘Digital Equity Initiative’ | The Arlington, Virginia city will be using their fiber optic networks to "dark fiber" and transform into a digital equity initiative. The new fiber optic existing is barely used and is not reaching marginalized or underrepresented communities. City leaders are now pushing for a new grant program of $250,000 and take advantage of the county's own broadband network. | County Now Hopes to Use Troubled Fiber Optic Network for New ‘Digital Equity Initiative’ | ARLnow.com | 2019 | Digital equity | Aging populations | Other state(s) | Rural | The installation of the fiber optic networks throughout the city to let companies buy the fiber and sell internet services for a cheaper rate. | The county raised about 4.1 million in funds to expand the fiber optics about 10 miles expanded in the city. The installation was successful by the measure of bandwidth and miles covered for the rural area. | Although the physical bandwidth of the fiber was installed, there was a poor usage of the internet access. Different businesses are still hesitant to buy the source of fiber and offer internet as it is purchased and controlled by the county. | When the installation first came into affect, there should have been a digital equity initiative to range what areas and businesses needs internet. Then, offer the low-cost fiber optic internet to companies to purchase. | Fiber optic internet is trending, there are other cities and states continuing to purchase internet for their home using this fiber or "dark fiber" for digital equity uses. | The practice of continuing to always include and consider residents or areas of inserting fiber optics are important. This article is based on the reconsideration of including digital equity into their plan and what business/residents need as a citywide grant program, not only just installation of fiber optics. | Rishell, S. (2019). County Now Hopes to Use Troubled Fiber Optic Network for New Digital Equity Initiative. ARLnow. https://www.arlnow.com/2019/02/27/county-now-hopes-to-use-troubled-fiber-optic-network-for-new-digital-equity-initiative/ | (Rishell, 2019) |
| Journal article | The Continuing Digital Divide in the United States | "As conversations surrounding the digital divide begin to shift from a divide in access to a divide in skills and/or literacy, attention must be drawn to meeting those needs in equal measure to maintaining access as the primary means of closing the digital divide in America" (Abstract) | The Continuing Digital Divide in the United States | 2015 | Digital literacy, Digital divide, Internet access, broadband connectivity, public libraries | Rural residents, People with low literacy, Racial or ethnic minorities, Low income populations | Nationwide (USA) | This paper presents that the digital divide is shifting from access to broadband to digital literacy skills and especially public libraries play a significant role in bridging this gap. Even though mobile devices help shrinking this gap with many mobile users, there are so many citizens who still rely on public libraries to access internet - in terms of device and broadband-. So, librarians have the responsibility to teach people the digital skills they need to become active citizens. | Collaboration with public libraries and providing digital skills training for librarians | Cohron, M. (2015). The continuing digital divide in the United States. The Serials Librarian, 69(1), 77-86. | (Cohron, 2015) | |||||
| Journal article | Focus on Technology: Alleviating the Digital Divide in the United States | This article describes different types of inequalities disadvantaged students may experience involving access to and use of technology. The paper also represents some programs applied to reduce digital divide. | Focus on Technology: Alleviating the Digital Divide in the United States | 2016 | Digital skills, Digital divide | Low income populations | Nationwide (USA) | One of the successfully implemented programs was in East Elementary School in Littleton, Colorado, a school with a sizeable number of low-income students. East Elementary incorporated netbooks in their literacy program. In addition, this paper highlights, like in many articles, that the main reason of the digital divide is the high level of income inequality in the US. | Osborne, J. H., & Morgan, H. (2016). Focus on Technology: Alleviating the Digital Divide in the United States: Hani Morgan, Editor. Childhood Education, 92(3), 254-256. | (Osborne & Morgan, 2016) | ||||||
| Journal article | Revisiting the Digital Divide in the COVID-19 Era | The digital divide limits opportunities for those without ready access to Internet. Movement online of essential activities during COVID-19 took inadequate Internet service from inconvenient to emergency/crisis for many households. A negative correlation between rurality and Internet speed was found at the county level, highlighting the struggle for rural areas. Schools tackle challenges of providing equitable educational access by attempting to provide access for students, while even households with service available struggle to maintain sufficient speeds and/or afford it. Essential activities moved online, yet sufficient Internet is an essential public service that remains unattainable for many US households. | Revisiting the Digital Divide in the COVID-19 Era | 2021 | COVID-19, Internet access, Public utility, Rural development, Rural internet | Rural residents, Low income populations | Nationwide (USA) | Rural | In rural areas, COVID-19 has intensified the challenges that come with the lack of Internet access, which has been noticed by many technology companies. Telecommunication providers have pledged to assist struggling customers in maintaining Internet access on a temporary basis; a few providers went further, lowering subscription costs, while others recognized the strain on residential bandwidth and increased Internet speeds for their customers. Meanwhile, in rural areas, reliable Internet at home is not an option for some residents regardless of price. | One only needs to look to rural electrification for an example—!!! the provision of electric services to rural homes through electrical cooperatives and other unique rural service provision mechanisms!!!. One must question the level of provision of Internet access as a public good versus as a private good, at least in the sense of the availability of the service capable of meeting moderate usage by the average American household and its several modern Internet connected smart devices. | Lai, J., & Widmar, N. O. (2021). Revisiting the digital divide in the COVID‐19 era. Applied economic perspectives and policy, 43(1), 458-464. | (Lai & Widmar, 2021) | ||||
| Website, Program or Initiative | SpaceX Just Laid out a Plan to Give Everyone Internet Access | SpaceX, a satellite and internet service owned by Starlink has publicized their plans for giving everyone internet access. The U.S. Federal Communications Commission has received a file with SpaceX to create high-speed internet for the entire globe. | SpaceX Just Laid out a Plan to Give Everyone Internet Access | 2017 | Digital inclusion | Nationwide (USA) | Rural | SpaceX is taking steps to be a global internet access with high-speed and the satellites can reach rural or hard to reach areas. The rural areas are not only considered in the U.S.A., but also in remote areas of India. This consideration is very effective because it is a private company with funding from many different companies and have the potential in the next four years to create global free internet. | Success is measured by the amount of satellites they can install and initiatives or partnerships with different governments to provide this internet access. Internet service to rural communities has been a challenge for many private companies, or very underrepresented. Simply this consideration can introduce more efficient ways to help rural areas. | Partnering or applying for free internet/low cost internet with governments is a very delicate situation. Different countries may have stricter or less laws around high-speed internet access or space satellites around their country for residents to use. It will be hard for SpaceX to collaborate with countries for internet and avoid conflict around their laws. | The contributing factor of government policies surrounding internet and accessibility for such is a barrier. As SpaceX continues to try and expand their internet access, they may run into political barriers and influences. | SpaceX is an ongoing project with Starlink and will continue to research high-speed internet using orbital satellites and how this can reach rural areas. | The contribution of private companies partnering with the federal U.S. government to expand orbital satellite high-speed internet in rural areas. | Igoe, K. (2022, March 16). SpaceX Just Laid Out a Plan to Give Everyone Internet Access. Futurism. https://futurism.com/spacex-just-laid-out-a-plan-to-give-everyone-internet-access | (Igoe, 2022) | |
| Program or Initiative | Programs - Serve Your City/Ward 6 Mutual Aid | This is a partnership of more than 36 local and Black- or Brown-led organizations based in DC that came together after the pandemic to fill the needs of their community. In regards to digital equity, they collect and distribute laptops and hotspots to students, families, and elderly residents. They also run a laptop training programs where youths learn how to collect, refurbish, and redistribute laptops as well as how to provide tech support for those devices. | Programs - Serve Your City DC/Ward 6 Mutual Aid | 2020 (when the programs merged) | Digital equity, Digital literacy, Digital skills, Digital inclusion | Racial or ethnic minorities, Aging populations, Low income populations | Other state(s) | Urban | They are a sustainable program as they are collecting devices locally, training community members to refurbish them and manage technical support, and then giving them back to community members who express a need (specifically students, families, and elderly persons) or selling them for profits to reinvest in the program. | They've delivered over 1000 backpacks with laptops and/or hotspots. | The organization did not share their shortcomings or obstacles on their website. | The organization did not share their shortcomings or obstacles on their website. | They've partnered with Comcast in the "Digital Navigators" program | A best practices is the Mutual Aid model of leadership and support coming from within the community, instead of relying on charity. | Serve Your City DC. (n.d.). Programs. https://serveyourcitydc.org/programs/ | (Serve Your City DC, n.d.) |
| White Paper | A Human Approach to Closing the Digital Divide | This Boston Consulting Group study, supported by Comcast, explains the digital divide and offers a potential solution: digital navigators. These are are "trained individuals, typically based in a community organization, who provide tailored support for the full spectrum of digital inclusion needs, from internet and device access to digital skill building," and this paper defines the role(s) of digital navigators while making an argument defending programs with these digital navigators and arguing for their expansion. They organize digital navigators into four primary models/archetypes: intervention specialists, digital inclusion specialists, social change agents, and functional skill builders. Information for the study was pulled from interviews with over 30 digital navigator programs. | A Human Approach to Closing the Digital Divide | 2022 | Digital equity, Digital navigation/navigators, Digital divide, Digital inclusion | Racial or ethnic minorities | Nationwide (USA) | Participants responded well to receiving individualized technical training and support from members of their community, especially when it could be provided in their home language. | They conducted a survey of over 1500 people who have interacted with a digital navigator. They report an 80% satisfaction rate, 66% of surveyed individuals were able to obtain internet access or a computer or tablet at home, 86% said they use the internet more now, and 80% reported improved digital comfort. They also saw higher rates of digital use from Black and Hispanic participants who worked with digital navigators than from non-Hispanic White participants. | Due to their small scale nature and lack of connections to other programs, many digital navigators have to build their user base by word of mouth, lack access to specialized programming, lack the resources to effectively track and analyze their own data, and lose valuable time to create all their own tools/resources rather than sharing with similar programs. | Programs with digital navigators are underfunded, small scale, and often work in isolation. | This research was funded by Comcast, which recognizes funding over 30 digital navigator programs. It is connected to Project UP: Comcast’s $1 Billion Commitment to Advance Digital Equity. | Best practices include relationship building, partnerships and referral systems from other trusted local organizations as well as family-and-friend networks, leveraging existing resources, and hiring locally. They highlight the necessity of trust and individualized assistance to the success of any digital navigator program. | Kalmus, M., Hill, H., Lee, J., Goodchild, C., & Webb, D., (2022). How to Close Digital Divide with Human Approach. Retrieved from https://www.bcg.com/publications/2022/how-to-close-digital-divide-with-human-approach. | (Kalmus et al., 2022) | |
| Book | Theorizing Digital Divides | "The core analysis in this book is to examine and explain the phenomena of digital divide and digital inequalities from a theoretical perspective....This book proposes some well-known theories (i.e. Weber, Bourdieu and Simmel) as well as hitherto untouched theoretical visions (i.e. neo-colonialism, recognitional perspective and non-western perspective) to explain this contemporary phenomenon. Theorizing digital divide brings together innovative work from a wide range of contexts and traditions which explicitly focus on the roles of theory in digital divide research." (p. 1) | Theorizing Digital Divides | 2017 | Digital equity, Digital divide, Digital inequalities | People with disabilities, People with low literacy, Racial or ethnic minorities, Low income populations | Nationwide (USA) | "Theorizing digital divide fills this gap by collecting different perspectives and theoretical approaches in analysing digital inequalities, and by proposing a more nuanced approach to study the digital divide." (p. 1) | Ragnedda, M., & Muschert, G.W. (Eds.). (2017). Theorizing Digital Divides (1st ed.). Routledge. https://doi-org.prox.lib.ncsu.edu/10.4324/9781315455334 | (Ragnedda & Muschert, 2017) | ||||||
| Journal article | Bridging the Digital Divide for Older Adults via Observational Training: Effects of Model Identity from a Generational Perspective | The proliferation of technology offers potential solutions for enhancing the well-being of older adults. However, older adults often have low digital literacy and are disengaged from the digital world. With age-appropriate training, older adults are expected to acquire a wide range of technological skills and bridge the digital divide. Through the lens of social cognitive theory, this study aims to investigate the effectiveness of observational training through behavior modeling in enhancing technology acceptance in older adults. The moderating effects of model identity on training outcomes from a generational perspective are examined. An empirical training experiment was completed with 59 community-dwelling older adults. Training outcomes were measured using cognitive knowledge, affective variables, and meta-cognition. The results ascertain the effectiveness of observational training in improving their technological knowledge, self-efficacy, outcome expectations, and sense of social connectedness when using technologies. From a generational perspective, the older adult behavior model is more effective than the young or child behavior models in increasing self-efficacy and willingness to use technology. The model identity further enhances the positive outcomes of training. The results of this study contribute to designing educational interventions to bridge the digital divide. | Bridging the Digital Divide for Older Adults via Observational Training: Effects of Model Identity from a Generational Perspective | 2020 | Digital divide | Aging populations | International | 1. Through empirical training experiments, this study found that observational training, through behavior modeling, is an effective intervention for (re)shaping the perceptions of older adults toward using technological devices. 2.Behavior modeling through videos is suggested as an economical training method which can be easily implemented in elderly community centers and used for self-learning. In particular, the older adult behavior model is more effective than the young or child model in teaching older adults to use technology and reducing technology anxiety, as evidenced in this study. The identity-consistency of the behavior model enhances positive effects when designing videotapes for training purposes or even for advertisements. Therefore, besides peer learning, peer training is a promising tool for the education of older adults. 3. The expectation of social inclusion is intense among older adults for their well-being. At post-training stage, social connectedness plays a more important role in affecting technology acceptance in older adults than self-efficacy and outcome expectations. 4.The differences found before and after training indicate that investigating the mechanism of technology acceptance in specific adoption stages in future studies is of interest. 5. Experienced costs are equally important to older adults as experienced benefits when deciding whether to use a technology device; that is, they paid much attention to the costs of learning. Therefore, avoiding complex demonstrations during training and trying to emphasize the benefits of a target technology device/activity are highly encouraged. | Ma, Q., Chan, A. H. S., & Teh, P.-L. (2020). Bridging the Digital Divide for Older Adults via Observational Training: Effects of Model Identity from a Generational Perspective. Sustainability, 12(11), 4555. https://doi.org/10.3390/su12114555 | (Ma et al, 2020) | ||||||
| Journal article | Bridging the Digital Divide for Older Adults via Intergenerational Mentor-Up | "Objectives: The effectiveness of Intergenerational Mentor-Up (IMU), an innovative intervention that engages college students in tutoring older adults, was examined with regard to eHealthy literacy and social isolation. Method: A total of 55 older adults (mean age ¼ 73.82) participated in the six-session IMU tutorials. In this mixed methods study, quantitative and qualitative data were collected in a parallel fashion. Participants were interviewed after participating in the IMU. Results: Older adults presented significant improvement between pre- and post surveys in various outcomes such as eHealth literacy, technophobia, self-efficacy, and interest in technology. Intergenerational interaction brought about by IMU helped to decrease social isolation among older adults. Qualitative data revealed that individualized training, modifications, adaptations, and intergenerational interactions can decrease their anxiety and boost their confidence. Discussion: Study findings enable the identification of the training needs to help close the digital divide and allow these older adults to reap the benefits of technology use" | Bridging the Digital Divide for Older Adults via Intergenerational Mentor-Up | 2018 | Digital divide, Digital inclusion | Aging populations | Nationwide (USA) | In this study, the majority of the senior IMU participants enjoyed having the opportunity for intergenerational interaction with youth mentors. Study findings presented significant improvement between pre- and post surveys in various outcomes, including eHealth literacy, technophobia, self-efficacy, interest, self-confidence, and social isolation, demonstrated medium to large effect sizes. | Lee, O. E.-K., & Kim, D.-H. (2019). Bridging the Digital Divide for Older Adults via Intergenerational Mentor-Up. Research on Social Work Practice, 29(7), 786–795. https://doi.org/10.1177/1049731518810798 | (Lee & Kim, 2019) | ||||||
| Journal article | Persistent digital divide in access to and use of the Internet as a resource for health information: Results from a California population-based study | "Objectives: Access to the Internet has grown dramatically over the past two decades. Using data from a population-based survey, This study aimed to determine the prevalence and predictors of (i) access to the Internet, and (ii) use of the Internet to search for health information. Methods: Authors analyzed data from the 2011–12 California Health Interview Survey (CHIS) and included all individuals 18 years of age and older. The outcomes were (i) prior use of the Internet, and (ii) use of the Internet to find health or medical information within the past year. they performed survey-weighted logistic regression models on our outcomes to adjust for potentially confounding demographic and socioeconomic factors. Results: this study included an unweighted and survey-weighted sample of 42,935 and 27,796,484 individuals, respectively. it is found that 81.5% of the weighted sample reported having previously used the Internet. Among Internet users, 64.5% stated that they used the Internet within the past year to find health or medical information. Racial/ethnic minorities, older individuals, and those who lived in lower income households and rural areas were less likely to have access to and use the Internet to search for health information. Conversely, English-proficiency and increasing levels of education were positively associated with online health information seeking. Conclusions: Authors found that most Californians have access to and use the Internet to search for health information, but still noted a persistent digital divide. Interventions to narrow the divide are needed, otherwise this may lead to a continued widening of existing healthcare disparities." (p. 49) | Persistent digital divide in access to and use of the Internet as a resource for health information: Results from a California population-based study | 2017 | Digital divide, Telehealth | People with low literacy, English learners/not native speakers, Racial or ethnic minorities, Low income populations, Aging populations | Other state(s) | "Despite the limited evidence on the impact of consumer health websites on clinical outcomes, there will continue to be a growing number of individuals searching online for medical information. Consumers who use these tools also report that it has a positive effect on their overall perceived health and leads to a better understanding of their health and conditions." (p. 52) "we found that most Californians access and regularly search online for health and medical information....The healthcare industry has invested significant capital in developing web based resources and patient-provider portals to help improve healthcare delivery and patient engagement, but this differential use will continue to widen already existing gaps." (p. 53) | "The 2011–12 CHIS surveyed 42,935 individuals and survey-weighting yielded a sample of 27,796,484 individuals." (p. 50) | "Individuals who are older, immigrants, nonEnglish speaking, unemployed, less educated, and living in low income households or rural areas are all less likely to have ever accessed the Internet. There is also differential use among the various racial/ethnic groups, as African Americans, Latinos, Japanese, Chinese, Filipinos, and South Asians are all less likely to have gone online versus whites." (p. 51) "The Internet is fraught with readily available information, but the reliability and accuracy of such information is difficult to assess and highly variable." (p. 52) | "There are a number of reasons why older individuals continue to not engage in online health information-seeking. For example, many seniors have perceptual, psychomotor, and physical limitations such as from arthritis, tremors, or hand-eye coordination problems that can make handling of the computer mouse and other technologies challenging. Seniors also may face psychosocial barriers, as learning how to use a computer and asking for help can be anxiety-provoking and embarrassing for some individuals." (p. 51); " "differences in cultural values, care preferences, and perceived benefits of online health information likely contributed to these differential rates of use" (p. 51); "limited availability of health-related websites and patientprovider portals in languages other than English" (p. 52) | N/A | "It is vital to ensure that online health information is easy to read and understand in order to avoid unnecessary confusion and misinterpretation among consumers." (p. 52); "informed stakeholders (e.g., healthcare providers, patient advocacy societies, professional societies, etc.) should have an increased presence on the Internet, promote more effective search and evaluation techniques, and develop and promote uniform standards for health-focused sites" (p. 52); "Continued collaborative efforts from multiple stakeholders including patients, healthcare providers, industry partners, and website developers are needed to narrow this digital divide." (p. 53) | Nguyen, A., Mosadeghi, S., & Almario, C. V. (2017). Persistent digital divide in access to and use of the Internet as a resource for health information: Results from a California population-based study. International journal of medical informatics, 103, 49-54. | (Nguyen et al., 2017) | |
| Program or Initiative | The Affordable Connectivity Program is administered by USAC with oversight from the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) | Affordable Connectivity Program (ACP) is a U.S. government program run by the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) that offers: up to a $30/month discount on your internet service, up to a $75/month discount if your household is on qualifying Tribal lands, a one-time discount of up to $100 for a laptop, tablet, or desktop computer (with a co-payment of more than $10 but less than $50), and a low cost service plan that may be fully covered through the ACP. Some internet service providers, such as Comcast, are offering additional benefits or discounts, such as free internet or a free device, in addition to meeting the baseline requirements of the program. The ACP replaced The Emergency Broadband Benefit (EBB), which launched in May 2021. | The Affordable Connectivity Program is administered by USAC with oversight from the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) | 2021 | Digital equity | Low income populations | Nationwide (USA) | Urban, Suburban, Rural | Best practices include making broadband affordable for low income households and allowing them the choice of services/service providers. | N/A | N/A | Not all internet companies offer the Affordable Connectivity Program, so access is limited based on location as well as the program qualifications. | The implementation of this program looks slightly different for each service provider (e.g. Comcast, T-mobile, etc.) | Best practices include making broadband affordable for low income households and allowing them the choice of services/service providers. | Federal Communications Commission. (n.d.). Affordable Connectivity Program. Retrieved from https://www.affordableconnectivity.gov | (Federal Communications Commission, n.d.) |
| Conference proceeding | Multidimensional Approaches to Illustrate the Digital Divide among K-12 Students | This paper presents the initial findings of Team D2IE's multidisciplinary project, which won first place in the Global XPRIZE Education Open Data Challenge. The project focuses on investigating the inequalities in digital infrastructure and internet connectivity among K-12 students at the county level in the United States. The project's research objectives include evaluating the relationship between broadband availability, usage, and costs across the United States at the county level. Additionally, the project aims to assess variations in broadband availability, usage, speed, and cost within counties. The team also seeks to create a comparable measure illustrating the disparities in broadband access and utilization among K-12 students. Lastly, they aim to estimate benefit-cost ratios to inform resource allocation and investment strategies for both public and private sectors. | Multidimensional Approaches to Illustrate to Digital Divide among K-12 Students | 2021 | Digital divide, digital access, digital infrastructure, K-12 students, internet connectivity | Rural residents | Nationwide (USA) | The findings show that there is a negative correlation between broadband access, usage, and speed in rural areas. There is a low benefit-cost need for communities in the areas with less access. High benefit-cost ratios are mainly observed in areas in highly populated areas. | From the paper: Local leadership could partner with federal, state, and other funders to determine and negotiate with broadband businesses for their digital needs. | Jim, C., Evans, S., & Grant, A. (2021). Multidimensional Approaches to Illustrate the Digital Divide among K-12 Students. In IASL Annual Conference Proceedings. | (Jim et al., 2021) | |||||
| Journal article | Crossing the Digital Divide and the Equity Expanse: Reaching and Teaching All Students during the Pandemic | The paper represents survey results completed by 56 Minnesota district level tech directors and the results show that efforts to provide tech devices were efficient but maintaining student attendance and engagement was the greatest challenge. | Crossing the Digital Divide and the Equity Expanse: Reaching and Teaching All Students during the Pandemic | 2022 | Digital divide, covid-19, distance learning, emergency remote learning, equity literacy, structural ideology, pandemic, students, technology, technology director | Low income populations | Other state(s) | Urban, Rural | The study revealed issues related to digital divide besides poverty and geographical inequalities (urban vs rural): - Students' mental health concerns (lack of peer interactions, new competing responsibilities, and declining academic performance) - Districts reported that more funding was required to replace devices, software, and meet additional management and monitoring. - Districts reported cultural barriers to using technology (Minnesota Native American population entrusted distance learning oversight to tribe elders) | Hill, J., & Reimer, T. (2022). Crossing the digital divide and the equity expanse: Reaching and teaching all students during the pandemic. Journal of Leadership, Equity, and Research. | (Hill & Reimer, 2022) | |||||
| Book, Chapter 5 | Funding for Technology and the “Digital Divide” | This chapter first describes U.S. school funding with a specific emphasis on technology. Next, the author discusses the digital divide in its three forms: economic, usability, and empowerment. The writer then analyzes efforts to close the digital divide gap. Subsequently, the chapter revisits technology funding and the digital divide under the COVID-19 pandemic. In addition, the digital divide, if not addressed, puts at-risk students even more disadvantage and interrupts their rights to receive quality education. | Funding for Technology and the “Digital Divide” | 2022 | Digital divide | Low income populations | Nationwide (USA) | The digital divide manifests itself in several forms- the easy-to-solve economic divide, the more complicated usability divide, and the puzzling empowerment divide. While overcoming these divides will not happen overnight, understanding the root causes of the digital divide–affordability, availability, and adoption–is the first step in the right direction. In addition, breaking down silos among education stakeholders, focusing on members of society with lower levels of education, those living in low-income households, or even those affected by the demographic difference, together create capacity that can make change possible. | Duran, M. (2022). Funding for Technology and the “Digital Divide”. In Learning Technologies: Research, Trends, and Issues in the US Education System (pp. 75-87). Cham: Springer International Publishing. | (Duran, 2022) | ||||||
| White Paper | Advancing Digital Equity among Immigrant-Origin Youth | The paper presents lessons learned from the pandemic and the digital divide it exacerbated, especially during the lockdown. | Advancing Digital Equity among Immigrant-Origin Youth | 2022 | Digital divide | English learners/not native speakers, Racial or ethnic minorities, Low income populations, Immigrant-origin youth | Nationwide (USA) | Immigrants or the children of immigrants face when attempting to learn basic digital skills, English, and core subjects such as math and science. Some of these immigrant-origin students have also experienced increase pressure to assume financial and caregiving responsibilities at home. These challenges have reportedly led to higher rates of chronic absenteeism and disenrollment among high school-age immigrant-origin youth. Although most schools resumed in-person instruction for the 2021–22 school year, technology use continues to be a fundamental component of the modern U.S. education system—both as a routine tool for assigning work, evaluating academic performance, and communicating with students and parents, and a core part of instruction during future. Immigrant integration policies often center on education and employment. But such discourse is incomplete without a focus on increasing digital equity. Policymakers and practitioners can take steps to help immigrant families gain better access to digital tools and training by leveraging lessons learned and innovations from periods of remote learning during the pandemic. Doing so is essential for both advancing immigrant integration and modernizing the policy and service frameworks that undergird it. | Workie, E., Hinkle, L., deDufour, A., & Lacarte, V. (2022). Advancing Digital Equity among Immigrant-Origin Youth. Migration Policy Institute. | (Workie et al., 2022) | ||||||
| Report | Recognizing the Rural Digital Divide | "The intention of this paper is to provide qualitative data that assesses the ability of WASD households to provide an effective online learning environment for their student(s). To gather this data a survey was distributed to all K-12 households with children enrolled in WASD. The survey was designed to look for key indicators of the digital divide when it came to service offerings, service speed, reliability, overall digital literacy, and what, if any, reported effect these indicators had on the online learning experience. This paper does not intend to assess if the digital divide had any impact on the academic performance of WASD students. " (pp. 6-7) | Recognizing the Rural Digital Divide | 2022 | Digital divide | Rural residents | Other state(s) | Rural | "wired broadband has traditionally been fast and reliable, particularly for bidirectional communication" (p. 11) "the service scoring highest as being “always reliable” was cellular hotspots (both school and private) at only 17%" (p. 11) and "WASD was able to mitigate the digital divide with cellular hotspots to a degree." (p. 12) "the lowest number of significant outages per month was also cellular hotspots, with only 20% of households reporting no more than three significant outages per month" (p. 11) | The researchers conducted a case study of Wattsburg Area School District in Pennsylvania. A "survey was distributed to all 1,166 households of WASD students" (p. 7), and the researchers attempted to measure the speed/quality of each type of Internet service consumed by the participants. | "Satellite data reliability has always been problematic. Data caps, customer over-subscriptions, and line-of-site/weather-influenced service conditions have made the experience for traditional high-orbit providers problematic. Additionally, the high latency, or lag, found in the data transmission, particularly for data upload, makes this method insufficient for any aspect of interactive online learning." (p. 10) "DSL had the lowest score regarding percentage of households that had to reconnect access, with 73% of all households reporting they had to help students reconnect at some point." (p. 11) "WASD was able to provide access to online learning material with school provided cellular hotspots but the service carriers were not able to provide adequate broadband speeds and reliability for K-12 households consistent with FCC guidelines." (p. 12) | "The current internet service options available to K-12 households in the WASD exacerbate aspects of the digital divide, specifically around the speed and reliability of available services, thus making it more difficult for WASD students to access online learning." (p. 9)" Other mitigating factors include "the reliability of wired broadband at several WASD households and the overall unreliability of satellite service" (p. 10). Evidence of digital literacy inconsistencies across the disctrict includes "only 46% of wired broadband households knowing speed increases are available, as well as a handful of households incorrectly believing DSL and satellite increases are available (which may be true in very rare instances, but in general these services cannot be increased). Fifty-six households indicated that they were not aware of any other online services they could purchase had the school provided wireless hotspots not been available" (p.12). | Starlink (low-orbit) satellite service was in the beta-testing stage when this survey was conducted. | "Low-orbit satellite (relatively new and unavailable to all areas for now) for better speed and reliability that promises high-speed internet with plenty of coverage." (p. 5) "Satellite service will never be as reliable as fiber optic (wired) service but should enough speed and reliability to meet the current needs of K-12 households for online learning." (pp. 16-17) "the only true way to solve the digital divide in rural areas like the WASD is to run high speed broadband infrastructure to each household" (p. 12) | Jackson, C. (2021). Recognizing the Rural Digital Divide. Retrieved from https://www.jeserie.org/uploads/Essays/Recognizing%20the%20Rural%20Digital%20Divide.pdf | (Jackson, 2021) |
| Journal article | The digital divide in online education: Inequality in digital readiness of students and schools | "The paper examines student and school readiness for remote learning. The purpose is to understand digital divides by students’ socio-economic status (SES), migration background, and gender in multiple countries, both from an individual and contextual perspective. Research finds notable differences along these socio-demographic lines both in terms of ICT access as well as use and skills. Moreover, digital access, use, and skills, as well as the divides herein seem to vary across countries. Importantly, we consider both student and school readiness for dealing with digital education." (p. 1) | The digital divide in online education: Inequality in digital readiness of students and schools | 2022 | Digital skills, Digital divide | English learners/not native speakers, Racial or ethnic minorities, Low income populations | International, 45 countries | "With respect to students’ individual ICT skills and use, we found evidence for a digital divide by migration background, gender, and especially SES. Children from higher SES backgrounds, without a migration background, and girls had higher-level ICT skills than their male peers from disadvantaged SES, and migration backgrounds. These findings are in line with results from previous studies on gender and SES divides in digital skills. Moreover, they suggest the importance of also taking migration background into consideration when studying (divides in) ICT skills. While these results provide support for the second level of the digital divide (the first one being access to technology), inequalities in the usage of ICT for educational purposes were less pronounced. However, in line with previous work, we found that students from advantaged SES backgrounds used ICT more for school than their peers from disadvantaged SES backgrounds in several of the countries under study." (p. 14) | "Using data from the International Computer and Information Literacy Study (ICILS) on seven countries, and the Teaching and Learning International Survey (TALIS) on 45 countries, both from 2018, we demonstrate that schools and students vary in their readiness for digital education." (p. 1) | Limitations: This study "does not reveal how the rapid digitalization during school closures has affected (inequality in) student outcomes like academic performance" (p. 14). | One factor to consider: "differences across schools within a country were sometimes quite substantial" (p. 14) | N/A | The authors recommend providing additional governmental funding to schools and highlight "the importance of policy makers to monitor, invest in, and equalize the (quality of) digital skills and resources of schools" (p. 14). | van de Werfhorst, H. G., Kessenich, E., & Geven, S. (2022). The digital divide in online education: Inequality in digital readiness of students and schools. Computers and Education Open, 3, 100100. | (van de Werfhorst et al., 2022) | |
| Journal article | Co-constructing Place, Space, and Race: African American and Latinx Participants and Researchers’ Representations of Digital Literacy Research in the South | This participatory action research investigates the roles of place, space, and race in three digital literacy projects concerning African American and Latinx parents and children that were conducted in the hearts of Georgia and Texas. "In our research, we illustrate how community-based and school-based programs become spaces for youth and adults to re-imagine and revise deficit perspectives about their identities as well as the places/spaces where they live and learn. We pay special attention to the affordances of digital tools for individuals who are regarded as “at-risk” based on their affiliations with neighborhoods or cities, or their nation-state origins....[and] explore how community-based programs, relationships, and the digitally-mediated sharing of lived experiences can help participants craft counter-stories and challenge deficit ideologies about people of color....We also explored how participatory methods allow us to build coalitions and reach out to minority youth and families in the South (Harman & Vargas-Dubai, 2012), creating opportunities for storytelling and composition where counter-stories emerge. In the different programs described in this article, our projects share a participatory paradigm aligned with the functions of counter-storytelling (Solórzano & Yosso, 2001), which include: (a) building community among traditionally/historically marginalized communities; (b) creating contexts to transform established ideologies; (c) creating possibilities for individuals to recognize others facing similar challenges; and (d) collaborating with others in the combination of stories and individuals’ current realities and issues." (p. 71) | Co-constructing Place, Space, and Race: African American and Latinx Participants and Researchers' Representations of Digital Literacy Research in the South | 2016 | Digital literacy, place and space literacies, African Americans, Latino/a Americans, race, culture, New Literacy Studies, multimodalities | Racial or ethnic minorities | Other state(s) | Urban, Rural | - geolocation - Dig-A-Fam: Families' Digital Storytelling Project to teach families how to create digital stories from personal interest stories in their home/school communities. - "in all three studies, participants found ways to use digital resources to make visible their connections to place and racial identities: Latinx mothers assembled images of multiple landmarks around their hometowns, and biracial children used the color palette in ways that represented their racial identities. Through these oral and multimodal counter narratives, participants’ voices, limitations, and dominant assumptions about the spaces and practices mattered in their communities." (p. 89) | "We have shared stories of three different places in the south, all where the researchers found the implications of race embedded into the very fabric of the community – from infrastructure to social expectations. These implications shaped the researcher, interactions between researchers and subjects, and even the research product." (p. 90) | "We are not even on the map" said one of the participants in Family Literacy Program. They used Google maps and zoomed in to find their home on the maps, but it did not show up. | "barriers to digital equality (i.e., the luxury of internet choice being unavailable in neighborhoods of color or appearing invisible on Google maps)" (p. 90) | The Southern Places – Digital Spaces Collaborative - https://soplacesdigspaces.wordpress.com/ | "Most of the participants found the counter-stories they wanted to tell through digital tools. Yet, the three researcher’s counter-stories may serve as a warning to future researchers of color that their output can be distorted by those same limits. Finally, this piece provides awareness to researchers of all ethnicities that the digital terrain they travel is one where issues of race, place, and space are critical considerations when studying and reporting digital literacy research in the 21st century." (p. 90) | Ellison, T. L., Noguerón-Liu, S., & Solomon, M. (2016). Co-constructing Place, Space, and Race: African American and Latinx Participants and Researchers’ Representations of Digital Literacy Research in the South. Journal of Literacy and Technology, 17(3). | (Elllison et al., 2016) |
| Journal article | COVID-19 Illustrates Need to Close the Digital Divide | "SUMMARY. The COVID-19 pandemic has heightened the need for internet connectedness – school and work closures and social distancing measures to slow the spread of COVID-19 require individuals to rely even more heavily on internet access to participate in telehealth programs, distance learning, and job opportunities. Yet, there remains a large digital divide in the United States, with many households lacking access to reliable broadband services. This digital divide has long been a factor limiting the achievement of public health goals for individuals that lack essential broadband infrastructure and COVID-19 response efforts have further limited internet access for those that rely on public internet access points such as public libraries. This Chapter will explore law and policy opportunities to reduce the digital divide and the resulting public health consequences flowing from the digital divide." (p. 222) | COVID-19 Illustrates Need to Close the Digital Divide | 2020 | Digital divide | Racial or ethnic minorities, Low income populations, Rural residents | Nationwide (USA) | Urban, Suburban, Rural | E-Rate Program, The federal Lifeline Program, Telehealth and the Rural Health Care Fund are some implementations to bridge the digital divide. | The author explores federal, state, and local broadband policies and laws and the legal and regulatory response to COVID-19. | "Many households stand to benefit if the FCC were to permanently extend these policy changes. However, the FCC’s programmatic responses to the COVID-19 pandemic have failed to bridge the digital divide that prevents many households from accessing the myriad of internet-based school, work, and health related activities that have become routinely internet based as the COVID-19 pandemic persists." (p. 225) | The paper says FCC's Connected Care Pilot program could serve as a model but it does not say more about what happened with this pilot program. The paper also does not mention why FCC's programs could not bridge the digital divide in long-term. | "The FCC also holds authority over several long-standing programs that reduce the economic burdens of broadband services, including E-rate, Lifeline, Connect America, and the Rural Health Care Program....FCC also recently launched the Connected Care Pilot Program to improve access to telehealth, including funding for the purchase of broadband services for patients that lack home broadband (Holmes, 2020). While these Universal Services programs have provided some relief, the FCC should strengthen and expand these programs to further reduce the digital divide." (p. 223) | The author suggests that the Connected Care Pilot program " could serve as a model for more permanent programs that bring the benefits of household broadband to many previously disconnected individuals" (p. 225). The author also provides a list of recommendations for action for federal, state, and local governments. | Lawton, B. (2020). COVID-19 Illustrates Need to Close the Digital Divide. 2020). Assessing Legal Responses to COVID-19. Boston: Public Health Law Watch. | (Lawton, 2020) |
| Journal article | Digital divide and teaching modality: It’s role in technology and instructional strategies | "This quantitative study aimed to better understand how teachers implement technology in a variety of teaching modalities to enhance content delivery and student engagement. More specifcally, it aimed to investigate the digital divide of technology usage based upon school setting and usage frequency. Responses were collected using a random sampling method of full-time K-12 public school teachers in a Mid-Atlantic state. The instrument was developed from prior research and examined educator usage frequency of instructional technology in urban, rural, and suburban schools dependent upon teaching modality. A total of 423 participants responded to the researcher-created questionnaire and yielded practical implementations for further study. The fndings uncovered signifcant diferences in usage frequency of rural, urban, and suburban teachers utilizing technology dependent upon modality (ex. cooperative learning, small group instruction, student-led research, problem-solving). Results of this investigation contribute to the feld through an attempt to foster a discussion of disparities between the integration of technology and school setting. The purpose of this discussion is to identify gaps in the digital divide, apply frameworks geared toward equity, and create professional development opportunities for all educators to diferentiate technology usage across multiple teaching modalities." (Abstract) | Digital divide and teaching modality: It’s role in technology and instructional strategies | 2023 | Digital divide, Urban schools, Rural schools, Educational technology, Teaching modality | K-12 teachers | Other state(s) | Urban, Suburban, Rural | "The study did find that school settings did make a statistically significant difference in how technology was used in K-12 classrooms as a communication tool, as an aid in problem-solving exercises, as a cooperative learning tool and within small-group instruction. The results showed urban teachers were likely to use technology as a classroom communication tool as compared to those in a suburban or rural school building. No statistically significant difference was found between how suburban and rural teachers used technology to enhance classroom communication. Results also showed that urban teachers used technology as a problem-solving aid far less than suburban teachers did; additionally, urban teacher technology usage frequency during cooperative learning was significantly less than suburban teachers, although the rate of usage by rural teachers was not significantly different for either group. Finally, the results indicated that urban teachers were much less likely to use technology within small groups than teachers in rural and suburban districts." (p. 14) | "The initial part of the survey included 11 intended purposes of learning through the use of technology. The final portion contained demographic questions such as age, gender, years of full-time teaching experience, grade level(s), subjects taught for middle grades and high school teachers, geographic setting, class size, and school building socioeconomic status. The survey consisted of multiple question types related to teaching modality with technology. Respondents rated their agreement to specific questions related to the study with items on a five-point ordinal category scale (1=‘Not at all’ and 5=everyday)." (p. 9) | "Only K-12 public schools educators employed in a single Midwestern state submitted responses. A further limitation occurred as survey dissemination depended on school principals to forward a survey hyperlink and purpose of study to their faculty which did permit the researcher to directly contact potential respondents." (p. 15) | "lack of training for teachers on how to efectively and appropriately use technology in the classroom, and lack of student access at home and at school to technology and the internet" (p. 14) The authors hypothesize that urban teachers may not incorporate "technology into classroom instruction as often as their rural and suburban peers...to mitigate the negative efects of the digital divide and not make it harder on an already disadvantaged population to succeed in the K-12 school system" (p. 15). | N/A | "Given the overwhelming role technology plays in the daily lives of most Americans in the 21st century, it is clear that students who are technologically profcient will have a better chance of succeeding in educational and professional settings. It is more important than ever to breach the digital divide between students who have access to technology and the internet, and those who do not have either any access, inconsistent access, or insufcient access." (p. 15) | Kormos, E., & Wisdom, K. (2023). Digital divide and teaching modality: It’s role in technology and instructional strategies. Education and Information Technologies, 1-19. | (Kormos & Wisdom, 2023) |
| Journal article | Redefining Literacy: The Realities of Digital Literacy for Students with Disabilities in K-12 | "This study has comprehensively reviewed implementing technology into digital learning for K–12 students with disabilities. Moreover, the study has investigated special and general education teachers (n = 682) through open-ended questions to have a better understanding of the integration of learning and digital literacy. The results of the study have been interpreted to enhance the practice and research of the future of technology through digital literacy." (p. 205) | Redefining Literacy: The Realities of Digital Literacy for Students with Disabilities in K-12 | 2016 | Digital literacy, students with disabilities, K-12, special education, general education, technology | Special and general ed teachers, People with disabilities | International | "All of the studies that been reviewed in this study have shown a positive relationship between the implementation of digital content and associated outcomes for students with disabilities. Based on the results, there were three major themes: digital literacy as a form of engagement and motivation, as a form of representation, and as a medium for enhancing students’ skills and achievements." (p. 210) | The findings of this study are based on participants' responses to three open-ended questions. Participants included general education and special education teachers. | Concerning challenges to implementing digital literacy with students with disabilities, the primary theme was technology issues. | "It requires extra load and work on teachers to prepare digital content, Students do not have enough skills to use technology for the purpose of literacy, Some Students have issues reading through devices/ do not like to read through devices, Lack of students’ experience in the use of digital materials for the purpose of literacy, Schools do not have the necessary equipment, Schools do not provide technical support during the work hours, Teachers do not know how to use technology for the purpose of digital literacy, There is no standardized evaluation for digital literacy performance" (p. 210) | N/A | "Students with disabilities should be at the center stage of digital learning to allow them to demonstrate their knowledge. Experience helps them build their confidence to improve their learning and enables them to discover the world around them using various devices. They should be given opportunities that allow them to use different devices to carry out their learning activities and to express themselves in order to adapt to social and cultural norms. One of the primary considerations in instructional planning for students with disabilities is designing learning experiences that allow them to discover the world around them through digital literacy. As demonstrated in this study, considerations for how students engage in the digital literacy experience, how they are supported in understanding the content, and how they take action and express understanding are important considerations in this process." (p. 212) | Alsalem, M. A. (2016). Redefining literacy: The realities of digital literacy for students with disabilities in K-12. Journal of Education and Practice, 7(32), 205-215. | (Alsalem, 2016) | |
| Journal article | Planning to maintain the status quo? A comparative study of digital equity plans of four large US cities | "The term digital equity is at the forefront of municipal government planning to mitigate digital equity. Digital equity signifies a desired future to be achieved, yet its meaning is not well-established. As such, planning for digital equity offers an opportunity for new discursive construction. This study examines how municipal governments have constructed the concept of digital equity through textual evidence, the digital equity plans of Kansas City, MO, Portland, OR, San Francisco, CA, and Seattle, WA. Adopting an approach from critical discourse studies, comparative analysis of the texts demonstrates how digital equity plans conceive of digital equity, characterize current problematic circumstances, and prescribe actions to make change. The plans have strikingly little to say about why digital inequality has emerged, yet they prescribe actions that indicate a more complex understanding of the problem than they articulate. The dynamics of policy diffusion suggest that the work of early adopters will influence other municipalities to create similar plans. Thus, the current moment is ripe for scholars to influence municipal planning for digital equity and participate in its discursive construction in both academic research and policymaking circles. This study offers two recommendations for planners to consider interventions that directly address the barrier of cost of consistent access to devices and Internet service and to incorporate digital equity as a cross-cutting theme in other areas of municipal planning." (p. 46) (Abstract) | Planning to maintain the status quo? A comparative study of digital equity plans of four large US cities | 2021 | Digital equity | N/A | Other state(s) | "The conception of digital equity conveyed in the plans does not call for substantive reorganization of the social world, nor does it call for change to social, political, or economic structures." (p. 60) "While the plans are far from radical in their proposals to transform inequality, they do adhere to the guidance for both process and content offered by the array of civil society and public sector institutions introduced earlier. Indeed, the four cities have been recognized as “Digital Inclusion Trailblazers” for their digital equity plans and related efforts to fund and implement their strategies (NDIA, 2020)." (p. 60) | "The analytical process entailed iterative close reading of the plans to consider their contributions to a discourse about digital equity, their argumentation, and the contexts of their production. The comparative analysis prioritized four items (1) plans’ proposed conceptions of digital equity – the desired goal state, (2) plans’ descriptions of the inequitable status quo – the current problematic circumstances, (3) plans’ prescribed courses of action for pursuing digital equity – the claims about how to make change, and (4) evidence about their authorship." (p. 53) | "The critical discourse studies approach sensitizes this analyses is to relations of dominance that shape inequality (vanDijk, 1993) and the analysis finds such relations to be largely invisible in digital equity plans. If, as plans describe, affordability of computing devices and Internet service is the most significant barrier to digital equity, there are few prescribed actions that reduce the cost of those items for afflicted individuals and fewer that would change the way the items are priced. Alternatively, strategies to increase the financial resources that deprived individuals have available for computing devices and Internet service are nonexistent. Other intertwined systems within the purview of municipal government that shape economic opportunity, including healthcare, housing, education, and public safety (Kvasny, 2006), play little role in the conception of digital equity, though they surface to varying degrees in prescriptions for change." (p. 60) | "Cost, lack of devices, lack of awareness of public access points, lack of transportation to spatially dispersed public access points...lack of...training, scarcity of culturally-specific training...Affordability of devices and connectivity: upfront and maintenance costs; barriers to training: unreliable access, challenge of learning, limited English proficiency, competing demands on time...limitations of old devices...lack of affordable Internet service (at home and mobile), challenge of learning, challenge of finding appropriate training, youth have false sense of confidence in their digital skills...Low median income, high levels of poverty and unemployment, city has large geographic footprint...Community-based organizations lack digital equity services that are sustainable over time and central toorganizational mission...Organizational barriers: lack of adequate devices for community programs, lack of funding and volunteer support for infrastructure, cost of Internet, high staff turnover due to inadequate funding, lack of shared curriculum across organizations; Structural barriers: Inadequate device recycling system, inadequate Internet in low-income housing and public spaces, limited information about low-cost Internet service, lack of single source for information about training and advancement" (pp. 55-56) | Kansas City, MO, Portland, OR, San Francisco, CA, and Seattle, WA are not the only cities with digital equity plans. | Planners and policymakers should get input from a variety of stakeholders, e.g. "government, community organizations, the private sector, and the public" (p. 60), and they need to understand "digital inequality as a problem related to social, political, and economic structures" (p. 63). | Stratton, C. (2021). Planning to maintain the status quo? A comparative study of digital equity plans of four large US cities. The Journal of Community Informatics, 17, 46-71. | (Stratton, 2021) | |
| Journal article | Digital equity and intercultural education | Digital equity and intercultural education are ongoing concerns in today's knowledge-based society. The global digital divide persists due to factors like unequal access, limited skills, and lack of support. Despite progress, challenges remain for teachers and learners in integrating digital technologies. Intercultural education is crucial for fostering understanding in a rapidly changing world. Bridging the digital and cultural divides requires access to digital resources. Recommendations for policy and practice aim to address these needs. | Digital equity and intercultural education | 2015 | Digital divide, Social inclusion, Access, Digital tools and resources, Knowledge divide | English learners/not native speakers | International | ICTs empower indigenous communities through cultural exchange, content creation, and curriculum development. Access to devices, connectivity, skilled teachers, support, development, and relevant content is essential. The 4D Project preserves endangered languages by incorporating traditional stories into e-books. ICTs also enable intercultural interaction, fostering collaboration among indigenous students worldwide. They greatly support intercultural education and collaboration across countries. Further information about the Four directions project can be found here. | In rural areas, distance education can address educational needs, but online courses may fall short of fostering deep understanding and engaging students in knowledge creation. However, providing indigenous learners with the skills and tools to create and share their own digital content can help bridge this gap. Similarly, facilitating collaborative inquiries between students from Quebec Francophone (where the project was established) remote networked schools and students from other countries promotes the synergistic connection between digital equity and intercultural education. | To enhance knowledge sharing, it is recommended to establish a collaborative digital platform and knowledge database where research results and best practices can be shared. Furthermore, the implementation of edigests and a social network for educators can support cross-cultural collaborations and facilitate professional development opportunities. Policy-makers should address the following: - Implement national e-strategies to ensure inclusive access to education for indigenous children. - Improve wireless capacity in indigenous schools and communities, particularly in developing countries and rural areas. - Support the creation of culturally and linguistically relevant educational content for indigenous communities. - Provide professional development programs for non-indigenous educators to better understand and support indigenous culture and utilize ICTs for accessing indigenous content and resources. - Develop online professional development programs to train indigenous individuals as teachers. | Resta, P., & Laferrière, T. (2015). Digital equity and intercultural education. Education and Information Technologies, 20, 743-756. | (Resta & Laferrière, 2015) | ||||
| Website | Bridging Digital Equity and Culturally Responsive Education in PreK-12: Leveraging Pandemic Pedagogy to Rethink the Status Quo | "This brief highlights key parts of roundtable conversations and contextualizes what educators stated who are rethinking what pandemic pedagogy can do. The conversation engaged those whose work focuses specifically on leveraging technology and digital tools for equitable, responsive education. Building on previous New America work on culturally responsive education, digital equity, teacher preparation, English learners, and students with disabilities, this project is the beginning of a new line of work exploring how to create a more inclusive and equitable education system." | Bridging Digital Equity and Culturally Responsive Education in PreK–12 - Leveraging Pandemic Pedagogy to Rethink the Status Quo | 2021 | Digital equity | People with disabilities, English learners/not native speakers, Racial or ethnic minorities | Nationwide (USA) | "Takeaways from the Conversations: 1. Expand definitions of curriculum “quality” to include representation, relevance, and inclusion (People are talking about CRE more and more, but the standards we still use were not written to reflect the histories, identities, and liberation of Black and Brown people). 2. Reconceive what digital equity means and what it looks like in practice (reframing the discourse around digital equity means thinking of the role it plays for students as equally important to their access to it). 3. Provide teachers the support and learning they need to deliver digital equity and culturally responsive learning experiences." | "To better understand the intersection of digital equity and CRE, and what it will take to use this moment as a catalyst for change, we convened 11 educators, scholars, and instructional technologists virtually in the fall of 2020 from different backgrounds: PreK–12 classroom educators, professors of teachers colleges, K–12 school leaders, and subject specialists. The goals of the conversation were to unearth the challenges, needs, and opportunities educators are experiencing around digital equity and CRE, and to understand how they have changed or have been affected during the pandemic (see appendix for list of participants)." | "maintaining the status quo during the pandemic means students are continuing to learn from materials that don’t reflect their perspectives or identities, but those materials are now digital." | "So much of the work to build better, more relevant materials is done in silos by individual teachers and school leaders in different districts, across different states—many without the time and support from their administrations that they need. Now, with the COVID-19 closures putting even greater strains on teachers’ time and capacity and students struggling to engage, finding ways to develop better materials is both more important than ever and increasingly more difficult." "Some of the biggest challenges we heard were strains on teachers’ time, capacity, and opportunities for professional learning to help them meet both the new and growing needs of remote learning." | N/A | Culturally responsive pedagogy and teaching offer a way to fully engage all students in remote and hybrid learning rather than digitally recreating "the inequities of in-person education." Moving forward, we need to remember "technology is a tool to be used toward the goal of responsive, equitable learning, rather than the goal itself." | New America. (2021). Bridging Digital Equity and Culturally Responsive Education in PreK–12. https://www.newamerica.org/education-policy/reports/bridging-digital-equity-and-culturally-responsive-education-in-prek12/ | (New America, 2021) | |
| Journal article | Digital divide, critical-, and crisis-informatics perspectives on K-12 emergency remote teaching during the pandemic | "This paper reports findings from teacher interviews conducted with K-12 public school teachers, exploring how digital access and use gaps in communities reflect wider digital and social inequalities as schools fulfilled emergency remote teaching mandates, becoming swept up into e-learning technology expansion trends propelled by mandates, and unfettered corporate edtech. Results show persistence of home and school level digital affordance gaps as hindrances to pandemic pedagogy. We build upon theory of the digital divide, and crisis and critical informatics literature considering how critical approaches to the study of socio-technical systems research can inform these understandings, providing insights into how localized digital inequities contribute to broader digital inequality and social inequality, in the educative processes expected of public education in democratic societies. Our work gives voice to one highly pressured and conflicted stake-holder in these dynamics—K-12 public school teachers—and demonstrates some of the ways in which digital inequity gaps may play a further magnifying role of societal division through expanding edtech deployment in K-12 grades, if current edtech trends hold." (p. 1665) | Digital divide, critical-, and crisis-informatics perspectives on K-12 emergency remote teaching during the pandemic | 2022 | Digital divide | Racial or ethnic minorities, Low income populations | Other state(s) | What affected the transition to remote learning and digital equity (pp. 1671-1676): -Early mandates from districts on instructional approaches - Paper packet access (Paper packets were alternate paper-based materials hypothetically made available to families opting out of edtech engagement but were largely discouraged and under-supported by districts. For most districts, the decision to move to predominantly online instruction occurred within days of the shutdown.) - Student device access - Teacher device access - Networking and home Wi-Fi access (Even among students who had devices, access to a reliable internet connection was a significant issue) - Synchronous and asynchronous mandates - Attendance - Digital skills - Race and income asymmetries - Vagueness and uncertainty of expectations and accountability for both teachers and students - Additional contributors to e-learning delivery - Teacher job satisfaction "Greater consistency of access and attendance reported by teachers in higher income settings appeared to elicit (a) more and better instructional options for teachers (e.g., synchronous instruction and use of a variety of web services); (b) more opportunities for students todevelop needed technology skills early, and therefore, (c) enhanced learning experiences of the core curriculum matter. Teachers reported that peers helped one another and skills became distributed more evenly in locations with higher attendance and access because teachers wereless distracted with tech support." (1676-1677) | "Our study relies on 21 New Jersey K-12 teachers' observations of their own and students' digital inequity conditions." (p. 1676) | "We note that the leap to edtech reliance for pandemic ERT, despite known digital inequities, may have longer term implications for students' ongoing educational path-ways and opportunities—to the detriment of those who experienced gaps in educational provision compared to their cohort peers, at what are integral K-12 developmental phases of primary and secondary level learning." (p. 1678) | "digital inequality plays a reinforcing role in social inequality" (p. 1678); "All teachers, no matter income level, reported observing inequities in students' digital device and networkingresources, access, literacies and uses for their districtand/or varying students within classrooms. It also appeared availability and engagement of home parent/caretaker supports varied by income level. Teachers in lower income districts appeared more likely to reports lower rollouts of new and legacy school-issued devices and wifi hotspots, less availability of parent-provided devices, higher levels of absence among students, and greater extents of laptop sharing in families." (p. 1676) | N/A | "We urge actors in educational policy and edtech design, to consider correctives driven by stakeholders in community, that entail not more technology per se, but rather focus on dismantling harmful systems and offering liberatory alternatives that may be better conceptualized and implemented emphasizing culturally responsive andholistic social solutions, instead of continuing to rely on the technical half-measures that have brought us to this untenable situation in the first place." (p. 1678) Briefly, instead of focusing on technical skills, teaching needs to be culturally responsive! | Reynolds, R., Aromi, J., McGowan, C., & Paris, B. (2022). Digital divide, critical‐, and crisis‐informatics perspectives on K‐12 emergency remote teaching during the pandemic. Journal of the Association for Information Science and Technology, 73(12), 1665-1680. | (Reynolds et al., 2022) | |
| White Paper, Journal article | Rural development in the digital age: A systematic literature review on unequal ICT availability, adoption, and use in rural areas | "This paper presents a systematic review of 157 papers on digital developments and rural development in advanced countries. It focuses on the general conclusions, in order to better understand the potential impacts of the coming Next Generation Access revolution. We distinguish two major strands of research: connectivity research and inclusion research. In the connectivity theme, the conclusion is that there are persistent and growing differences in data infrastructure quality between urban and rural areas. Public policies to promote the availability or improvement of data infrastructure are essentially responsive, and rapidly outdated by market developments. For inclusion, the hampered diffusion of technologies, and the lower average levels of education and skills in rural areas have a negative impact on adoption and use. Generic policies in this field neglect specific local needs. The paradox is that rural communities are most in need of improved digital connectivity to compensate for their remoteness, but they are least connected and included. Future research should therefore focus on specific places and communities -- combining both connectivity and inclusion issues -- in order to inform ‘customized policies’ for poorly connected and digitally excluded rural communities." (p. 360) | Rural development in the digital age: A systematic literature review on unequal ICT availability, adoption, and use in rural areas | 2017 | Digital equity, Digital literacy, Digital skills, Digital divide | Rural residents | Nationwide (USA) | Rural | "Top-down regulatory measures and subsidies are the most common instruments to deal with the urban-rural divide (section 4.5). Research on inclusion issues (section 5) is largely people-based and focuses on demand side and bottom-up elements, such as diffusion, skills, affordability, cultural differences and attitudes towards ICTs. The focus on the inclusion of all people, regardless of their background, can help showing the public value of ICTs and improved digital connectivity (sections 5.3 and 5.4). Moreover, inclusion research can provide the market with insights on latent demand of excluded and disconnected groups in the rural; insights which can be used to potentially bridge the gap between demand and supply." (p. 368) | This was a literature review rather than an evaluation of original research. | "A general conclusion from the literature on connectivity is that governments have only been able to react to market and societal developments, instead of anticipating them. By promoting the free-market rationale and using competition as the instrument for improving digital connectivity, instead of defining new technologies as utilities, governments have limited their influence on digital development, allowing for market failure. This has brought about programs to stimulate digital connectivity in rural areas with technologies and minimum service levels that were already outdated by the time they were deployed." (p. 367) | "Developments so far indicate that telecommunication companies will not provide every rural household or business with a high-speed Internet connection comparable to those in urban areas. Rural areas are served last, if they are served at all....Compared to urban areas, the profit opportunity in rural areas is lower because of the high costs of covering greater distances. Companies are only willing to deploy a network if households and businesses pay a higher price to make up for these higher deployments costs." (p. 367) | N/A | "In order to have equal opportunities for every person, household, and firm, everyone should be connected to high speed Internet. Furthermore, people have to know how to effectively use ICTs for their economic benefit or their quality of life, i.e. to keep up with developments." (p. 367) | Salemink, K., Strijker, D., & Bosworth, G. (2017). Rural development in the digital age: A systematic literature review on unequal ICT availability, adoption, and use in rural areas. Journal of Rural Studies, 54, 360-371. | (Salemink et al., 2017) |
| Journal article | Landscape of K-12 Computer Science Education in the U.S.: Perceptions, Access, and Barriers | This study investigated "perceptions, access, and barriers to computer science education at the K-12 level" (p. 645) in the US through surveys of students, parents, teachers, principals, and superintendents. Results showed that many respondents were unable to distinguish between computer literacy and computer science, with underrepresented groups having lower awareness. While there was high demand for computer science education across all populations, there were discrepancies in access, particularly for Hispanic, Black, and lower income students. Barriers to offering computer science education included competing demands for time and testing requirements, a lack of qualified teachers, and a disconnect between parent and student demand for computer science education (high) and administrator perception of that demand (low). | Landscape of K-12 Computer Science Education in the U.S.: Perceptions, Access, and Barriers | 2016 | K-12; pre-university; pre-college; high school; middle school; teachers; principals; superintendents; parents; perceptions; knowledge; access; barriers; diversity; underrepresented minorities; Hispanic; Latino/a; Black; African American; income | Racial or ethnic minorities, Low income populations | Nationwide (USA) | "a large majority of the respondents agreed that CS was important and had wide-impact and applicability" (p. 647) "Perceptions of who does computer science were narrow and stereotypical (White, male, smart), but there was high value and demand for computer science across all populations, particularly among parents." (p. 645) | Survey results - statistical information - please review the paper for charts. | "Despite the positive image of CS careers and work, we still see a need for broader education on what CS is and is not among all populations, including educators. And, despite the high value and demand for CS from parents, the education infrastructure does not equitably provide all students with the desired exposure, possibly with insufficient encouragement and access for underrepresented populations." (p. 650) | "This may be due to the perceptions across populations that CS is only for certain types of people, as well as a lack of awareness of parent demands and lack of support for CS teacher training and flexibility in the curriculum." (p. 650) "Perhaps the stereotypes of who does computer science is self-perpetuating, making the issue of diversity a deeply imbedded challenge." (p. 648) | N/A | Equitable pedagogies in computer science and improved communication and education about CS | Wang, J., Hong, H., Ravitz, J., & Hejazi Moghadam, S. (2016). Landscape of K-12 computer science education in the US: Perceptions, access, and barriers. In Proceedings of the 47th ACM Technical Symposium on Computing Science Education (pp. 645-650). | (Wang et al., 2016) | |
| Book, Chapter | Digital Learning in Rural K–12 Settings: A Survey of Challenges and Progress in the United States | "This chapter fills an existing gap in research by documenting successful practices of digital learning to support students, teachers, and families in rural education settings. A qualitative study identified the challenges faced by rural schools and then explored the digital learning strategies used to meet these challenges. Across the country, innovative practitioners are expanding Internet access, addressing teacher shortages, and increasing course offerings, which has in turn contributed to the academic achievement and future prosperity of today’s rural students." (p. 100) | Digital Learning in Rural K–12 Settings: A Survey of Challenges and Progress in the United States | 2019 | Digital equity | Rural residents, Low income populations | North Carolina, Other state(s) | Rural | Digital equity challenges in rural school districts: 1. Decline in enrollment, 2. Lack of computer and Internet access, 3. Lack of high quality professional learning, 4. Shortage of teachers, 5. Inequitable course access, 6. Gap in college and career achievement, 7. Increase in underserved populations, and 8. Lack of funding and resources. Challenge 2: Lack of computer and internet access - Rowan-Salisbury School System, NC. When the school district rolled out their digital learning initiative four years ago, it became apparent that even with computers in the hands of every student, more would be needed to realize the promise of digital learning for all. The school administrators asked the community As of 2018, Rowan-Salisbury schools had established over 75 Wi-Fi access points across the community with an aim towards expanding to 100. | From the conclusion and implications: As the authors of Why Rural Matters: 2015–2016 put it, “the challenges students face in many rural places are staggering. Lack of adequate resources, as well as struggles with teacher recruitment and retention, a shortage of early childhood services, and other challenges continue to daunt many rural communities” (Showalter et al., 2017, p. 1). However, in areas where schools and students are scattered and challenged by a lack of teachers and resources, technology can help elevate the field because of its ability to bring people together across remote areas. The successful, scalable use of technology in education places teachers, mentors, and other caring adults in critical roles. Technology extends the ability of teachers to reach students in new ways, and sometimes across long distances, but it does not replace them. The strategies presented in this chapter show that change is possible, and that digital learning has a role to play, but that it cannot be the entire answer for rural schools, students, and districts | Valentine, A., Gemin, B., Vashaw, L., Watson, J., Harrington, C., & LeBlanc, E. (2021). Digital Learning in Rural K–12 Settings: A Survey of Challenges and Progress in the United States. Research Anthology on Developing Effective Online Learning Courses, 1987-2019. | (Valentine et al., 2021) | ||||
| Journal article | A Framework of Pre-Service Teachers’ Conceptions About Digital Literacy: Comparing the United States and Sweden | "We examine the conceptions of digital literacy of pre-service teachers in the United States (n = 188) and Sweden (n = 121). Pre-service teachers were asked to define digital literacy in an openended fashion and to select those skills that they considered to be essential for digital literacy from a list of 24 skills provided. Based on pre-service teachers’ open-ended responses, four profiles of digital literacy conceptions, progressing in sophistication, were identified (i.e., technology focused, digital reading focused, goal directed, reflecting critical use). Moreover, preservice teachers’ selections of skills or competencies essential for digital literacy were used in cluster analysis. Profiles of digital literacy conceptions were consistent across open-ended and selected-response forms of assessment. Important similarities and differences in conceptions of digital literacy across the United States and Sweden are discussed, as are implications for improving teacher education." (p. 1) | A framework of pre-service teachers’ conceptions about digital literacy: Comparing the United States and Sweden | 2020 | information literacy; cross-cultural projects; 21st century abilities; post-secondary education; teaching learning strategies | Pre-service teachers | International, Sweden - US | "For example, the general part of the Swedish curriculum for compulsory school states that students shall develop their ability to critically review information, facts, and circumstances as well as be given 'the opportunity to develop a critical and responsible approach to digital technology, to see opportunities and understand risks, as well as to evaluate information' (p. 5, Skolverket, 2018). This emphasis on critical thinking, as a component of digital literacy, may have resulted in a higher number of Swedish pre-service teachers endorsing the item corresponding to the critical evaluation of information as essential for digital literacy. Consistent with policy initiatives pushing for the greater recognition of critical thinking as a part of digital literacy, substantially more pre-service teachers in Sweden were placed into the critical use cluster (35.54%) than the technology-focused cluster (17.36%). In contrast to Sweden, curricula in the United States have often been critiqued for their neglect of critical thinking, a deficit that was intended to be ameliorated through new policy initiatives, such as the Common Core Standards." (p. 15) "We found many pre-service teachers to only conceptualize digital literacy as technology driven. This constitutes a relatively impoverished understanding of digital literacy and does not include an appreciation of the need to teach critical thinking within digital contexts. For pre-service teachers, this may limit the skills that they themselves master and emphasize in their future classrooms. Teacher preparation programs can, therefore, use....Our proposed framework...as both a design and didactic tool to create lessons incorporating and assessing all four conceptions of digital literacy, as they develop in association with teachers’ learning about digital literacy. Further, when pre-service teachers plan lessons, they can use the framework as a supporting tool, by asking themselves questions such as: What technology was used during this lesson? Which types of digital reading were students exposed to and asked to engage in? What was the goal of this lesson or activity? Did the lesson or activity require students to engage in evaluation or reflection?....We, therefore, view this framework as a way of helping teachers build students’ metatechnological awareness, or explicit reasoning regarding how they are using technology and why. We also believe that such metatechnological awareness ought to progress in sophistication as pre-service teachers develop their instructional capacities." (p. 17) | "Drawing on pre-service teachers’ open-ended responses, we were able to identify four clearly discernible categories (technology focused, digital reading, goal-directed, and critical use) reflecting distinct conceptions of digital literacy. These four categories were found to manifest across both the U.S. and Swedish samples. Moreover, these categories were found to be conceptually consistent with patterns in pre-service teachers’ selected responses asking them to identify the skills or competencies that they consider to be essential for digital literacy, as determined via cluster analysis." (p. 12) | "There exists a gap between how policy organizations (e.g., OECD, PISA, EU, and the American Library Association, 2018) and pre-service teachers define digital literacy." (p. 17) | "Definitions introduced in policy documents reflect all four levels of digital literacy conceptions included in our proposed framework, while (too) many participants, from both Sweden and the United States, were found to hold a more superficial understanding of digital literacy, focusing only on its technological aspects." (p. 17); "considering digital literacy to require critical thinking is not the same thing as actually thinking critically while completing technology-related learning tasks" (p. 15) | N/A | "If pre-service teachers come to hold more sophisticated conceptions of digital literacy, they may implement more sophisticated digital literacy activities into their instruction and engage their students in critical reasoning about technology to a greater extent." (p. 17) | List, A., Brante, E. W., & Klee, H. L. (2020). A framework of pre-service teachers’ conceptions about digital literacy: Comparing the United States and Sweden. Computers & Education, 148, 103788. | (List et al., 2020) | |
| Journal article | Bridging the Digital Divide: Wi-Fi Hot Spots as a Means of Digital Equity | This paper represent a grant proposal for lending wifi hotspots to high need university students in Montana. | Bridging the Digital Divide: Wi-Fi Hot Spots as a Means of Digital Equity | 2022 | Digital divide, Digital equity, Digital access | Rural residents, Low income populations, Racial or ethnic minorities | Other state(s) | Rural | "Overall, the Hotspot Lending Program at MSU Library was a success. The limited number of checkouts and the short time of the grant funding did not allow the authors to determine the depth of need for Wi-Fi hot spots, however. Because of this, they secured an additional year of funding through MSU to gain more data and determine if the program should be put into operation by the MSU Library or another entity on campus." (p. 208) | "Wi-Fi hot spot borrowers were queried via a Qualtrics survey at the end of spring semester 2021 with the goal of using their responses to pursue additional funding to continue the Hotspot Lending Program beyond the pilot period. The survey results were overwhelmingly positive. All respondents reported that the Hotspot Lending Program allowed them to succeed in their courses." (p. 206) "At the end of the spring 2021 semester, the Wi-Fi hot spots had been checked out 31 times and had four instances of special usage by library employees. From October 2020 through April 2021, approximately 2,500 gigabytes (GBs) of data were used by the WiFi hot spots." (p. 206) | The authors do not indidicate that anything was ineffective, but they do make two suggested improvements for future implementation: "1. Include institutional IT in the marketing of the program....2. Plan metrics for need ahead of time, and make the application process electronic if possible. The metrics can include income, living situation, geographic location, and other factors that impact Internet access. The pilot project determined need on a case-by-case basis, which took more time than if metrics had been established to simply determine if a student qualified" (p. 207). | The funding was only short-term/temporary. More funds are needed to keep the program running. Additionally, "marketing across a large institution is difficult" (p. 206). | N/A | Collaboration with libraries and librarians, training programs and support for library staff, and more funding are needed for successful implementations of such programs. | Salsbury, M., & Hansen, M. A. (2022). Bridging the Digital Divide: Wi-Fi Hot Spots as a Means of Digital Equity. portal: Libraries and the Academy, 22(1), 199-219. | (Salsbury & Hansen, 2022) |
| Journal article | Urban/rural digital divide exists in older adults: Does it vary by racial/ethnic groups? | "Despite the overall increase in older adults’ internet use, the digital divide within older Americans remains substantial, particularly for those in rural areas and with racial/ethnic minority backgrounds. The current study examines how one’s residential area and racial/ethnicity relate to internet access, both singularly and in concert....The odds of internet use were significantly lower for older adults living in suburban and rural residences as well as for Black and Hispanic individuals. Furthermore, rural living reduced the probability of using the internet more for Blacks than Whites. These findings underscore the need for targeted interventions to narrow the digital divide, with particular attention required for older Blacks in rural communities." (p. 1348) | Urban/Rural Digital Divide Exists in Older Adults: Does It Vary by Racial/Ethnic Groups? | 2022 | rural and urban issues, race, information technology, social determinants of health | Rural residents, Racial or ethnic minorities, Aging populations | Suburban, Rural | "When factoring in intersectionality between race and residence, we found significant interaction effects between rural residence and non-Hispanic Black race/ethnicity. While White and Hispanics showed relatively stable internet userates across their residential locations, rural living substantially reduced the probability of using the internet among Blacks (58% for urban Blacks and 49% for suburban Blacks vs. 33% rural Blacks). These findings support the key notions of the social determinants of health framework and intersectionality perspective. That is, environmental factors and individual characteristics exert compounding effects on ones’ internet use rather than operating separately." (pp. 1353-1354) | "Data were from the 2016 Health and Retirement Study. The sample consisted of 17,372 Americans aged 50 and above. Logistic regression analyses were performed to test the direct effects of residence and race/ethnicity and their interaction effects on internet use." (p. 1348) | "The financial burden of owning and maintaining internet technology (e.g., computer, internet connection, and router) may deter users with lower household incomes from benefiting from internet access, thus widening the digital divide." (p. 1353) | "this older population is often less familiar with evolving technologies and has come to be known as 'digital immigrants' (as compared to the younger generation of 'digital natives')" (p. 1353); "individuals living in suburban and rural areas had lower levels of education and more chronic diseases than their urban counterparts" (p. 1353); "the negative effects of rural residence were more pronounced in older minorities" (p. 1354) | Healthy People 2020 objectives | "Having knowledge about marginalized communities among older adults can help future researchers and developers specifically target communities that are being left out and create access for them." (p. 1354) "Our findings suggest that the digital inequality caused by the rural-urban divide and race/ethnicity exists among older adults. Given that rural areas are most in need of digital connectivity due to their physical remoteness (Salemink et al., 2017), more policy efforts should be made toserve these communities better. Such strategies would include investment in network infrastructure and increased broad-band internet connection" (p. 1354) | Choi, E. Y., Kanthawala, S., Kim, Y. S., & Lee, H. Y. (2022). Urban/rural digital divide exists in older adults: Does it vary by racial/ethnic groups?. Journal of Applied Gerontology, 41(5), 1348-1356. | (Choi et al., 2022) | |
| Report | The New Landscape of Digital Literacy: How workers’ uneven digital skills affect economic mobility and business competitiveness, and what policymakers can do about it | "This report uses data from a rigorously designed international assessment to analyze workers’ current level of digital skills, providing a breakdown of how skills differ among workers in major industries and occupations as well as demographic categories. Next, it provides a short summary of recommendations for how policymakers and business leaders can invest in upskilling to ensure that all workers have the resilience needed to respond to the continuing transformation of jobs in the US labor market, and to acquire new digital skills as necessary. This report is a companion to Digital Skills for an Equitable Recovery, which provides more detailed policy recommendations and related background." (p. 2) | The New Landscape of Digital Literacy: How Workers' Uneven Digital Skills Affect Economic Mobility and Business Competitiveness, and What Policymakers Can Do about It | 2020 | Digital skills, Digital upskilling | People with disabilities, People with low literacy, Racial or ethnic minorities, English learners/not native speakers | Nationwide (USA) | "Key steps that policymakers should take include: - Embedding digital literacy and problem-solving skills as allowable or required activities under existing workforce development, adult education, and higher education policies - Investing in new Digital Literacy Upskilling grants to expand access to high-quality digital skills instruction that meets industry and worker needs. These dedicated investments are necessary to ensure sufficient attention is paid to digital skill building in the face of numerous competing priorities. Grants should support states in developing and implementing programs that embed digital literacy skills as part of broader occupational skills training, integrated education and training, and other accelerated learning strategies. • At the state level, policymakers can introduce state level legislation or an administrative policy mirroring the federal-facing Digital Literacy Upskilling grants, but should also provide resources and technical assistance for adult education programs that serve workers and learners. These programs are an important existing avenue for digital skill building. - Incentivizing private investment in digital skills training, instruction and upskilling opportunities for incumbent workers by expanding the scope of existing tax policies like the Work Opportunity Tax Credit (WOTC) to allow employers to provide essential upskilling opportunities, both in response to the Covid-19 pandemic and over the longer term." (p. 22) | Data was pulled from the OECD Survey of Adult Skills (PIAAC) 2012-14. | "existing education models may not equip workers with all of the skills they need to succeed in the digital economy" (p. 22) "Across all industries, data show that nearly one-third (31 percent) of workers lack digital skills. This number includes the 13 percent of overall workers who have no digital skills and another 18 percent who have limited skills." (p. 6) "While digital equity issues do disproportionately burden workers of color (see below), the sheer scale of America’s workers digital literacy skill gaps across all races illustrates the need for wide-ranging solutions that are responsive to the full range of workers’ demographic and personal characteristics." (p. 18) | "Workers with low skills get less on-the-job training" (p. 16): "While it might seem that younger workers would be uniformly digitally literate, the data in fact show that a significant portion of workers with limited or no digital skills are in their late teens through early 30s" (p. 17); "Men are disproportionately likely to have no digital literacy skills" (p. 17); "people of color are more likely to lack broadband internet access at home, more likely to lack a desktop or laptop computer at home, and otherwise face greater difficulties obtaining the technology often used to build digital literacy skills" (p. 18); "workers’ educational attainment is highly correlated with their digital skills attainment" (p. 19); "because the digital skills assessment took place in English, these numbers may underestimate workers’ technological proficiency if they were instead working in their home language" (pp. 20-21); "Parents are more likely to have digital skill gaps" (p. 21) | N/A | "policymakers should support public-private training partnerships, invest dedicated funds in digital upskilling efforts, and identify incentives to advance short-term and nontraditional training and education programs that respond to jobseeker and employer needs for rapid upskilling in the wake of the pandemic and beyond." (p. 22) | Bergson-Shilcock, A. (2020). The New Landscape of Digital Literacy: How Workers' Uneven Digital Skills Affect Economic Mobility and Business Competitiveness, and What Policymakers Can Do about It. National Skills Coalition. | (Bergson-Shilcock, 2020) | |
| Journal article | Overcoming Barriers to Technology Adoption When Fostering Entrepreneurship Among the Poor: The Role of Technology and Digital Literacy | "The issue of technology and digital literacy is particularly prevalent in the context of poverty entrepreneurship in developed economies, where educational systems are challenged to provide general literacy, to the detriment of providing the poor with comprehensive learning environments to develop technology and digital literacy. Furthermore, ventures created by the poor are often survival enterprises with few to no employees, thereby limiting the absorptive capacity of such ventures to the technology capabilities of the founder. To address the current gap, we first conduct a systematic literature review, examining existing models of how the poor include technology in their ventures as well as what hurdles they face. Then the authors present a conceptual model that provides a dynamic perspective on technology and digital literacy and its effects on technology adoption, absorptive capacity, and venture outcomes." (p. 1) | Overcoming Barriers to Technology Adoption When Fostering Entrepreneurship Among the Poor: The Role of Technology and Digital Literacy | 2020 | Digital literacy, Absorptive capacity, bottom of the pyramid, poverty alleviation, poverty entrepreneurship technology adoption, technology literacy | Low income populations | Nationwide (USA) | Urban | "The literature review and conceptual framework that have been developed here have important theoretical and managerial implications. With regard to the theoretical implications, we offer new insights into technology and entrepreneurship in a poverty context. The review provided a cumulative understanding and broad categorization of the literature on technology and digital literacy and technology adoption by low income entrepreneurs, where prior research has focused on other venture contexts. The poverty context has been ignored despite its relevance to economic development. This answers a call by prior scholars for a more firmly grounded understanding of how the poor can be supported in building more sustainable and innovative entrepreneurial ventures." (p. 11) "In urban areas in developed economies across the globe, more emphasis is being placed on the development of entrepreneurial ecosystems. While these ecosystems tend to exclude or ignore the poor, this is slowly changing. For the low-income entrepreneur, being tenacious in trying to connect to this ecosystem can open doors in terms of gaining access to (observing, sharing, borrowing, receiving for free) the technologies and knowledge of existing small businesses, emerging technology firms, nonprofits working in the economic development and entrepreneurship spaces, and local universities." (p. 12) | The authors created their framework based on a literature review rather than original research. | "Richer understanding is needed regarding how commitment to a given technological approach, and particularly basic technologies that are not robust and result in considerable manual effort, are self-reinforcing and create a path dependency. The technology being used serves not only as an obstacle to newer technologies, but it also limits skills development and experimentation with current process activities (e.g., production, marketing, or financial processes), as well as the entrepreneur’s external outlook. Given the technology void in the ventures of the poor, adopting new technology, even if relatively basic, can be equivalent to crossing a large chasm." (p. 11) | "Although the adoption of new technologies is a means of increasing absorptive capacity, the extant capacity levels can be a barrier to adopting these technologies. The novelty, complexity, and power of new technology can threaten existing routines, and be inconsistent with mental schemas of those inside the venture." (p. 11) | N/A | "Attempts to theorize about technological literacy must recognize that, for the poor, available infrastructure (including entrepreneurial ecosystems) at the community or societal levels plays an instrumental role not only in providing technology access, but also in training, and opportunities for practice. Furthermore, these three variables, each of which poses unique challenges to those in poverty, interact with one another in affecting literacy improvements." (p. 11) "Turning to managerial implications, it is important that lowincome entrepreneurs appreciate that technology is central to all ventures, not just those labeled as 'high tech'. They must recognize their potential role when performing literally every activity within the enterprise." (p. 12) | Neumeyer, X., Santos, S. C., & Morris, M. H. (2021). Overcoming barriers to technology adoption when fostering entrepreneurship among the poor: The role of technology and digital literacy. IEEE Transactions on Engineering Management, 68(6), 1605-1618. | (Neumeyer, Santos, & Morris, 2021) |
| Report - Policy brief (G20) | Bridging the Gap Between Digital Skills and Employability for Vulnerable Populations | "While digital technologies are spreading rapidly, mismatches in desired digital skills between education and industry pose an ongoing challenge for the future of work. Some segments of the population are illprepared to fill jobs that will require at least a basic set of digital skills. With rapid technological advancement, traditional and emerging learning deficits can put them at greater socio-economic risk by exacerbating inequalities and unemployment. This brief provides recommendations to bridge the digital skills divide and foster the employability of those vulnerable populations, which can lead ultimately to larger macroeconomic outcomes such as poverty reduction, income growth, and economic empowerment." (p. 1) | Bridging the Gap Between Digital Skills and Employability for Vulnerable Populations | 2019 | Digital divide, Digital skills | Rural residents, People with disabilities, People with low literacy, English learners/not native speakers, Aging populations, Low income populations, Vulnerable populations | International | For the G20 to address "the digital skills divide and challenges facing vulnerable populations, as well as their relation to the future of work....the following set of specific recommendations are provided, using a glocal approach that focuses on combining global strategies for digital skills acquisition with local socioeconomic community needs." (pp. 3-4): - Reforming existing education systems to better prepare vulnerable students - Endorsing and supporting a life-long learning framework (from “cradle to grave”) - Enabling and promoting internship and apprenticeship programs - Facilitating the creation of alternative and non-formal educational models for digital training - Offering more individualized and flexible learning opportunities - Promoting the creation of personalized and targeted educational content focused on the specific needs of vulnerable communities - Moving away from a one-size fits all digital education strategy - Developing robust pedagogical competencies among instructors - Creating the educational environment to insure inclusivity of all citizens - Taking advantage of existing online training and platforms - Facilitating more active engagement and coordination between education and the private and public sectors - Creating an international community to develop a more coordinated digital skills strategy | The authors used the United Nations E-Government Surveys and " an assessment of member states’ digitalization policies for disadvantaged groups" (p. 3) conducted by the OECD to inform this policy brief. | "Unless policies specifically address the digital divide affecting vulnerable populations, there is a high risk of increasing inequities and unemployment in the years to come, with relevant implications for societies at large." (p. 11) | "Despite the efforts to bridge the digital divide, major challenges remain across several dimensions such as connectivity deployment, promoting digital skills acquisition in formal education and non-formal education settings, and linking skills training to the labor market." (p. 11) | N/A | "All stakeholders including governments, the private sector, academia and civil society, need to revisit strategic frameworks for digital inclusion to assess barriers that may still be creating digital exclusion for disadvantaged and vulnerable groups, especially as it pertains to barriers to digital knowledge, skills training, and potential employability." (p. 11) "The G20 is the international organizing body that is best positioned to combine these efforts into a cohesive and integrated strategy for improving digital skills for citizens worldwide, and especially for those groups most vulnerable to the digital transformation." (p. 12) | Lyons, A. C., Zucchetti, A., Kass-Hanna, J., & Cobo, C. (2019). Bridging the gap between digital skills and employability for vulnerable populations. IN THE DIGITAL AGE. | (Lyons et al., 2019) | |
| Journal article | The Digital Divide Is a Human Rights Issue: Advancing Social Inclusion Through Social Work Advocacy | "Consistent with a social work human rights approach, the United Nations General Assembly declared access to the Internet a basic human right in 2016. This calls upon social workers to engage in advocacy eforts to advance policy and programs to alleviate the digital divide. In this article, we examine the digital divide in the USA and discuss why it is a social justice and human rights issue. We provide a policy context and recent examples of state or local policy initiatives to reduce the digital divide. Prominent among them is California’s Internet for All Now Act. We also identify and share promising practices and advocacy tools being used in the feld that provide guidance to community practitioners as they engage in work at state and local levels aimed at closing the digital divide." (p. 1) | The Digital Divide Is a Human Rights Issue: Advancing Social Inclusion Through Social Work Advocacy | 2021 | Digital divide, Information technology, Human rights, Social work advocacy | Rural residents, Racial or ethnic minorities, Low income populations | Other state(s) | "Using a slightly modifed version of Bliss’s (2015) model of advocacy, we propose a six-step model for social workers to utilize in digital inclusion activism, recognizing that state and local contexts will shape the specifcs of strategic decisions that are made at each point along the way. However, drawing upon existing digital activism eforts and the best policy and program practices that have emerged in states with extant broadband access initiatives, we suggest a number of goals that might be useful for newly forming coalitions to consider. In a review of the literature on the advocacy process, Bliss (2015) identifes fve components of a framework for thinking about engaging in policy advocacy which we might use to reduce the digital divide. These include (1) identifying the cause and benefciary of the advocacy campaign, (2) specifying an intended outcome, (3) identifying target audiences, (4) specifying strategies and tactics, and (5) constructing a plan for evaluating advocacy processes and outcomes. We have added a component that we believe should occur at the beginning of Bliss’s model: developing an appropriate structure for coordinating advocacy eforts." (p. 9) | This article is providing recommendations rather than evaluating an existing intervention/initiative. | "Digital inclusion is a human right largely overlooked in macro social work practice and policy advocacy." (p. 11) | "High-speed Internet is a tool people rely upon to conduct the daily business of their life and interact with each other, the economy, and government. However, millions of people in the USA still have no home access to high-speed Internet. Low-income, people of color, older, Native Americans, and rural residents in particular are on the wrong side of the digital divide. This structural reality perpetuates social, economic, and political disparities." (p. 1) | California's Internet for All Now Act | "Tackling the digital divide will require an approach that not only expands access but also provides digital skills and encourages people to use the Internet in ways that positively contribute to their social, economic, and political lives." (p. 11) | Sanders, C. K., & Scanlon, E. (2021). The digital divide is a human rights issue: Advancing social inclusion through social work advocacy. Journal of Human Rights and Social Work, 6, 130-143. | (Sanders & Scanlon, 2021) | |
| Journal article | Economic Inequality, the Digital Divide, and Remote Learning During COVID-19 | The paper analyzes "the link between wealth, reliable internet and electronic device availability, remote learning time, race, and ethnicity, using the U.S. Census Bureau’s Household Pulse Survey" (p. 41). Researchers found "Black and Hispanic/Latinx households have less reliable internet and devices available. This goes along with fewer hours children spend on remote learning. The lack of internet and devices correlates with less wealth, as reflected in lower homeownership rates and greater housing instability. Black and Hispanic/Latinx households, in particular, are more likely to be renters and face housing instability" (p. 41). | Economic Inequality, the Digital Divide, and Remote Learning During COVID-19 | 2021 | achievement gap, education and inequality, education policy, equality of opportunity, stratification, wealth gap | Racial or ethnic minorities | Nationwide (USA) | This study focused on gaps, barriers, inequalities, and disparities rather than idenitifying effective strategies, interventions, etc. | Researchers used "the U.S. Census’ weekly Household Pulse Survey (HPS)—Phase 1" (p. 47) data for their analysis. | "Our analyses likely understate the effects of limited wealth on children’s education by race and ethnicity during the pandemic." (p. 56) | Wealth and education contribute to intergenerational inequality, as wealthier families can provide more educational opportunities, leading to further wealth accumulation. The digital divide reinforces this cycle, particularly for Black and Hispanic/Latinx households who have less reliable internet and devices for remote learning during the pandemic. These households have also suffered more from the pandemic and recession than White households, exacerbating existing disparities. | N/A | "As remote learning continues in many parts of the country, policymakers will need to consider the lack of wealth among many Black and Hispanic/Latinx families in their efforts to ensure equitable remote learning opportunities. Housing stability, for example, in addition to reliable internet and device availability for all children are all key factors in ensuring that educational achievement gaps by race and ethnicity do not widen much further." (p. 56) | Francis, D. V., & Weller, C. E. (2022). Economic inequality, the digital divide, and remote learning during COVID-19. The Review of Black Political Economy, 49(1), 41-60. | (Francis & Weller, 2022) | |
| Journal article | The Expanding Digital Divide: Digital Health Access Inequities during the COVID-19 Pandemic in New York City | The article investigates potential policies and remedies aimed at lessening the effects of the digital divide on marginalized communities during and after the COVID-19 crisis. | The Expanding Digital Divide: Digital Health Access Inequities during the COVID-19 Pandemic in New York City | 2021 | Digital divide, Telehealth | People with low literacy, Racial or ethnic minorities, Aging populations, Low income populations | "The COVID-19 pandemic has highlighted that digital access is now a social determinant of health and a prerequisite for access to both COVID-related and non-COVID care. Accordingly, individual providers and health systems must combat digital health inequities by collaborating with community-based, state, and federal organizations to increase access to broadband internet and computing devices, improve digital literacy, and mitigate disparities in telehealth." (p. 185) "Government subsidies for broadband subscribership and data charge subsidies for mobile health applications will help reduce cost barriers to individual patients. Broadband access can be further expanded by leveraging existing community infrastructure and social programs." (p. 184) | "digital access is now being recognized as a social determinant of health" (p. 183) | "During the COVID-19 pandemic, virtual access to providers has become vital for respiratory symptom screening and triage. Thus, in addition to greater access to broadband internet, vulnerable communities will require increased access to technological devices to engage with telehealth platforms." (p. 184) | "Over 21 million individuals in the USA lack broadband internet access, limiting access to telemedicine." (p. 183) | "the Lifeline Program, which provides telephone and internet subsidies to low-income individuals and people enrolled in certain federal assistance programs, in order to prevent subscribers from losing access due to COVID-related disruptions" (p. 184) | "Health systems should develop culturally and linguistically inclusive digital health platforms and track their usage among the sociodemographic groups most affected by the digital divide. These populations should be included in the development of mobile health tools." (p. 185) "Hospitals should partner with community colleges, public libraries, and other community-based organizations to develop education and skills-building programs to address digital and health literacy gaps. These training programs should be designed according to needs identified by community stakeholders, available in multiple languages, and implemented in a variety of forms, such as in-person or virtual classes, real-time online help, and home assistance from trained digital literacy workers." (p. 184) "Health providers and health systems can help accelerate broadband deployment in low-resource communities by supporting policies that reduce financial, bureaucratic, and structural barriers to the expansion of required infrastructure, such as digital redlining of less economically profitable neighborhoods." (p. 184) | Eruchalu, C. N., Pichardo, M. S., Bharadwaj, M., Rodriguez, C. B., Rodriguez, J. A., Bergmark, R. W., ... & Ortega, G. (2021). The expanding digital divide: digital health access inequities during the COVID-19 pandemic in New York City. Journal of Urban Health, 98, 183-186. | (Eruchalu et al., 2021) | ||
| Journal article | Disparities in Health Care and the Digital Divide | "Disparities in health outcomes are a well documented and worrisome part of our health care system. These disparities persist in spite of, and are occasionally exacerbated by, new technologies that are intended to improve health care. This results in a 'digital divide' in which populations that have poorer health outcomes continue to have poorer health outcomes despite technological improvements." (p. 1) "In many ways, the digitical divide is already shrinking via improved access to internet and technology/process improvements. For example, people with schizophrenia, PTSD, and bipolar disorder have had their care successfully augmented by new technology. However, problems persist- being impoverished, female, and black all correlate with decreased probability of completing a telehealth visit, and millions of americans have insufficient internet access to complete telehealth visits....We must continue to utilize new technology in health care to improve outcomes, but we must also be wary to ensure those outcomes are equitable across different populations." (p. 1) | Disparities in Health Care and the Digital Divide | 2021 | Digital divide, Telehealth, Telepsychiatry, Health information technology, Health Disparities , Social determinants of health | Racial or ethnic minorities, Low income populations, Female | Nationwide (USA) | Advancements in technology and internet access have reduced the digital divide, improving healthcare outcomes for individuals with mental illnesses. "Solutions to these issues thus come in broad-stroke form but also require technology-specific action. The broad stroke solutions include advocating for improved internet access, providing IT support, advertising technologies to patients, and educating patients on the benefits of these technologies. We can also continue to perform research on things like patient portal utilization and telehealth so that we can ensure they remain useful diagnostic and treatment facilitators. Research on efficacy is especially important so that we can recognize which illnesses can be dealt with in the digital world and which need in-person interaction." (p. 4) | This article offered a review of current research rather than collecting original data. | "marginalized low income/rural patients...are disproportionately affected by these access issues" (p. 2) Being poor, female, or black can still reduce the likelihood of completing a telehealth visit, and many Americans lack sufficient internet access for telehealth consultations. | "Telehealth and other health information technologies require adequate internet access, sufficient devices, and a private space to have discussions with providers. They also require a certain level of health and digital literacy in order to be utilized well. This is a concern for mental health patients especially, who have been shown to have generally lower levels of health literacy." (p. 2) "Several factors have been reported to contribute to the digital divide. These include poverty, low literacy, lack of interest or motivation to use technology, and lack of access to technology....Lack of access to technology occurs due to cost of technology, insufficient broadband access, worse access for the disabled, and the use of lower perfoming devices (such as computers or tablets)." (p. 2) "Poor digital/health literacy, internet access issues, lack of IT assistance, and wariness of new technologies seem to be the main culprits contributing to the digital divide." (p. 4) | N/A | As we continue to use new technology to enhance healthcare outcomes, we must also ensure that the benefits are distributed fairly among different populations. | Saeed, S. A., & Masters, R. M. (2021). Disparities in health care and the digital divide. Current Psychiatry Reports, 23, 1-6. | (Saeed & Masters, 2021) | |
| Journal article | Combating Low Digital Literacy in the College Classroom: A Narrative Review | College students need digital literacy skills for success in the rapidly changing world of information communication technologies (ICTs). However, many students lack these skills because they were not taught them in K-12 education. This literature review examines "why some students are coming to college with digital literacy skills below minimum expectations and how education leaders can provide equitable access to technology to combat low digital literacy skills. The review identified three levels of digital divides—access, skillset, and outcome—that impact student success. Institutional interventions to combat these divides are explored. Students who have the opportunity to develop their digital literacy skills early in their post-secondary schooling will find greater academic and later professional success" (p. 1). | Combating Low Digital Literacy in the College Classroom: A Narrative Review | 2022 | Digital literacy, Digital divide, Student access, literature review | College students | Nationwide (USA) | The literature review found that digital divides are not just about internet access but involve three levels that affect student success. The first level is physical access to devices and the internet, the second level is digital literacy skills, and the third level is the outcomes of internet use. These levels are interdependent, which means that interventions by institutions can facilitate the development of skills in students and promote positive outcomes. Level One: Socioeconomic Status Impacts Technology Access Level Two: Opportunities to Develop Digital Skills Level Three: Institutional Support Interventions | This article offered a review of current research rather than collecting original data. | The digital divide is not one-dimensional, and we cannot assume digital literacy just becuase an individual can be classified as a 'digital native.' | "Institutions need to be mindful that most academic activities on campus require devices and knowledge of how to use these devices for students to be academically successful. Students who are less privileged either through their socioeconomic background, or those students who have not had the proper training to break through second-level divides, are those who become digitally excluded and continue to struggle academically." (p. 6) | N/A | The authors suggest that to ensure equitable support for all enrolled students, "Colleges need to offer the support services to develop these [digital literacy] skills in students and can no longer assume students have these skills because they are digital natives (Reisdorf et al., 2020). Institutions need to determine which interventions they can reasonably offer to ensure they are providing equitable access to all students to break down digital divides and to promote academic success for all" (p. 6). | Hiller, R. H. (2022). Combating Low Digital Literacy in the College Classroom: A Systematic Literature Review. Florida Journal of Educational Research, 59(3). Chicago | (Hiller, 2022) | |
| Journal article | Barriers Affecting the Effectiveness of Digital Literacy Training Programs (DLTPs) for Marginalized Populations: A Systematic Literature Review | "This study constitutes an essential input for research on the digital literacy training literature providing educators and program stakeholders with a reinforced understanding of various ways to manage digital literacy training programs (DLTPs) at different levels. Consequently, it closes some identified knowledge gaps and offers additional insights to improve the DLTPs performance at the community level." (p. 110) | Barriers Affecting the Effectiveness of Digital Literacy Training Programs (DLTPs) for Marginalised Populations: A Systematic Literature Review | 2022 | Digital literacy, Training program, marginalized, systematic literature review, technical vocational education and training (TVET) | English learners/not native speakers, Marginalized populations | International | The researchers have created a three-phase model for effective program implementation (pp. 119-121): 1 - Pre-Implementation (need assessment surveys, provisions for funds and resources, expert-designed curriculum, running pilot projects) 2 - Implementation (facilitate cooperation between stakeholders, developing capacity-building strategies, infrastructure, use of effective learner-based training strategies, motivations and perceptions) 3 - Post-Implementation (independent evaluation, continuous suppor to learners post-training) Throughout all phases: robust collaborative community support system, information education communication (IEC) activities, and a grievous redressal mechanism (GRM) | This article offered a systematic review of current research rather than collecting original data. | "First, in education, training, and employment, there is a need to have a reference framework of being digital literate in an increasingly globalized and digital world." (p. 117) "Second, studies indicate the need to identify the key performance indicators (KPIs) for developing an effective evaluative mechanism for assessing the sustainability and scalability of DLTPs." (p. 117) "Third, a shortage of research exists on the individual and community level determinants that affect the program implementation and technology adoption at the grassroots level, specifically in DLTPs." (p. 117) "Fourth, there has been a lack of focus on how information sharing and collaboration between actors might benefit DLTPs." (p. 117) "Fifth, there is a lack of studies examining the significance of digital inclusion from the gender perspective." (p. 118) "Sixth, future studies should pay attention to comprehending and developing measures for tangible outcomes of Internet use in the context of marginalized populations." (p. 118) "Seventh, training programs developed without training theories are less than optimal." (p. 118) | List of barriers found (pp. 115-117): 1 - Barriers Found at The Administrative Level (policy planning and designing, policy implementation, monitoring and evaluation) 2 - Barriers Found at Training Level (training design, curriculum, training and pedagogy, infrastructural issues) 3 - Barriers Found at Learner Level (motivation and perceptions, family support, socio-economic and demographic factors) 4 - Barriers Found at Community Level (lack of support, lack of alliances with community actors, lack of expertise) - these are the least explored in current research | N/A | "Governments and administrations at both public and private levels should ensure personal access and adequate training and learning time for beginners to alleviate user resistance. Different people can learn the same curriculum at different learning paces, and therefore, the careful consideration of the needs and personal characteristics of the target populations is a must." (p. 119) | Choudhary, H., & Bansal, N. (2022). Barriers Affecting the Effectiveness of Digital Literacy Training Programs (DLTPs) for Marginalised Populations: A Systematic Literature Review. Journal of Technical Education and Training, 14(1), 110-127. | (Choudhary & Bansal, 2022) | |
| Journal article | Digital Literacy: The Need for Technology Integration and Its Impact on Learning and Engagement in Community School Environments | "The intent of this article is to advocate for continued development of community schools as well as the importance of teaching digital literacy skillsthrough technology integrated curriculum. Initiatives and community partnerships aimed at developing the whole child, including technology skills and digital literacy, will be shown to benefit not only the student body, but their parents, caregivers, and the surrounding neighborhoods." (p. 2) | Digital Literacy: The Need for Technology Integration and Its Impact on Learning and Engagement in Community School Environments | 2020 | Digital literacy | Rural residents, Low income populations | Other state(s) | Partnerships between communities and schools offer benefits such as "improved student learning, achievement, attendance, behavior, enhanced educator efficacy, greater quality of family life, and improved connections among community members" (p. 8). Technology integration and technology education are crucial to providing students with opportunities for future success. However, more resources and research are needed in this area, and "ensuring parent and caregiver comfort and use with technology" (p. 8) is also important. These initiatives are particularly important for community schools. | This article offered a review of current research rather than collecting original data. | N/A | "There are many inhibiting factors that impact a student’s ability to be successful, of which schools have a limited ability to impact, including poverty, family dynamics, and safety of the neighborhood." (p. 8) | N/A | "Community schools have the opportunity to shift the realm of teaching marginalized student populations by focusing, not on their lack of digital skills, but instead on their abilities to perform, excel, and grow through digital literacy opportunities. Community schools are able to provide students these types of opportunities through school curriculum and expanded learning opportunities." (p. 9) | Statti, A., & Torres, K. M. (2020). Digital literacy: The need for technology integration and its impact on learning and engagement in community school environments. Peabody Journal of Education, 95(1), 90-100. | (Statti & Torres, 2020) | |
| Journal article | Digital literacy | The article discusses "a mixed-method study on the implementation of 1:1 computing in a small rural Florida school district" (p. 61), which found that "rural teachers' perceived ease of use and perceived usefulness of 1:1 were significant predictors of both whole class and individualized instructions with 1:1" (p. 61). The study also explored how teachers integrated 1:1 into their instruction, revealing that they used it "to foster digital literacy and collaboration as well as to conduct student assessment. Reasons why the teachers integrated 1:1 into instruction, included increasing student engagement, personalizing learning, and facilitating teacher productivity" (p. 61). | Teachers Bridging the Digital Divide in Rural Schools with 1:1 Computing | 2020 | Digital literacy, K-12 online learning | Rural residents, People with low literacy | Other state(s) | Rural | The study found that rural teachers used 1:1 computing in various ways, including for digital literacy, online collaboration, and student assessment. The use of 1:1 computing for differentiation and individualization of instruction and assessment was a prominent theme in the study, which suggests more research on the role of technology in rural schools is needed. "These findings are important because possessing digital literacy is an essential 21st century skill, and they are consistent with prior research that indicates 1:1 computing is associated with pedagogical shifts towards more student-centered teaching practices such as project-based instruction and collaborative learning." (p. 73) Additionally, "teachers’ motivation to use 1:1 computing extended beyond themselves to include making instruction more productive for their students" (p. 72). | The study found that "perceived ease of use and perceived usefulness of 1:1 computing were significant predictors of both individualized and whole class instructional use of 1:1" (p. 71). The study also found that teachers used individualized instruction with 1:1 computing more frequently than whole class instruction. Teachers reported using 1:1 computing for engaging students in science lessons with the highest frequency of use and creating videos with the least frequency of use. The most frequent application of individualized instruction was for teaching English/Language Arts lessons, while the least frequent was for students taking distance education courses. | While the researchers acknolwedge many limitations to their data collection, nothing about their implementation of 1:1 computing was deemed ineffective. | Switching to 1:1 classrooms is often a slow adjustment, especially because it involves all educatiors in the building, not just "the early adopters and technophiles that often populate educational technology studies" (p. 73). | N/A | "1:1 computing, coupled with an LMS can be used to individualize instruction to meet the unique needs of different types of learners commonly enrolled in rural schools" (p. 72) and to bring opportunities to geographically isolated students. | Power, J. R., Musgrove, A. T., & Nichols, B. H. (2020). Teachers bridging the digital divide in rural schools with 1:1 computing. Rural Educator, 41(1), 61-76. | (Power, Musgrove, & Nichols, 2020) |
| Report | Boosting Broadband Adoption and Remote K– 12 Education in Low-Income Households | "This report identifies solutions and best practices to accelerate internet adoption through sponsored-service programs. These recommendations are critical to achieving educational equity and minimizing the risks of the digital divide—including income loss and economic exclusion—for the duration of the pandemic and beyond. As the government pursues additional education and low-income support programs, the lessons from sponsored-service programs are applicable more broadly. Importantly, the lessons can inform the effective outreach for those programs and their implementation." | Boosting Broadband Adoption and Remote K–12 Education in Low-Income Households | 2021 | Broadband access, Digital equity | Rural residents, Racial or ethnic minorities, Low income populations | Nationwide (USA) | Partnerships between "internet service providers (ISPs)...states, municipalities, and school districts, as well as community and philanthropic organizations and other nonprofits" "Sponsored-service programs are—and can continue to be—valuable models to accelerate broadband adoption." Four steps to make programs stronger: 1- Strengthen communications 2- Adapt the program's design 3 - Expand support 4 - Conduct ongoing research | BCG and Comcast conducted a survey of 1,500 US households from January 6, 2021, through January 11, 2021. BCG and Comcast also surveyed 1,000 households in two metro areas—Philadelphia and Washington, DC—from February 1, 2021, through March 26, 2021. "BCG and Comcast also interviewed more than 35 adults in households with children in grades K–12 and 20 school-district leaders and community partners in three metro areas: Chicago, Philadelphia, and Washington, DC." The interviewers spoke with city and district chief information officers, chief financial officers, and leaders who focus on digital inclusion and family engagement. The interviewers also spoke with policy, strategy, and programmatic leads from partner organizations who have first-hand experience raising program awareness and helping households navigate the application and enrollment processes. | This survey research "sought to understand why households remain unconnected even in places where broadband service is available and offered at no cost to eligible households through sponsored-service programs." | "The research found four factors that hinder enrollment in sponsored-service programs and limit internet adoption: low program awareness, a lack of clarity about the offerings and processes, a lack of trust in the available services, and structural limitations [e.g. housing situation, not having the right documentation to apply]." | Chicago Connected, Comcast’s Internet Essentials Partnership Program, Spectrum Internet Assist from Spectrum, Connect2Compete from Cox Communications, Access from AT&T, T-Mobile’s Project 10 Million, Verizon’s Distance Learning Program | The players that are key to success: - Internet service providers can codify lessons and best practices from their sponsored-service programs to develop consistent, scalable models. - School districts can serve as a hub for program communication and execution. - Community organizations, as highly trusted resources, can reinforce program marketing, recruit and support applicants, and help participants build their digital and technical skills. - Industry associations, educational institutions, and civil rights organizations can play a key role in unifying and amplifying messages. - Policymakers, in conjunction with other stakeholders, can offer a sustainable source of funding for digital education and skills building. Policymakers can also help with the program’s structure by giving guidance and proposing guardrails regarding who should be eligible and how funding should be used. | BCG. (2021). Accelerating Broadband Adoption for Remote Education & Low-Income Households. Retrieved from https://www.bcg.com/publications/2021/accelerating-broadband-adoption-for-remote-education-low-income-households | (BCG, 2021) | |
| Website | Visualization of the Digital Divide Among K-12 Students: Open Data, Quantitative Measures, and Policy Implications | The study used "a multi-disciplinary approach to analyze the digital divide among K-12 students in disadvantaged communities" (p. 1). The results indicate that access to high-speed internet (broadband) and usage remain a challenge. "Three visualizations were developed to display the digital disparity at the county level across our country and to support decision-making in resource allocation to improve broadband access and utilization" (p. 1). The study utilized "fixed terrestrial broadband (i.e., cable, fiber, copper, DSL) data with public school administrative/financial data, and Census information to further elucidate digital inequality among K-12 students who attend public schools in the U.S." (p. 1). This study suggests an integrated approach using "data science, educational measurement, and economic analysis to address the current research gaps of the digital divide among K-12 students in the US" (p. 9). Interactive maps were produced to help policymakers understand the complexity of the issue. | Visualization of the Digital Divide Among K-12 Students: Open Data, Quantitative Measures, and Policy Implications | 2021 | Digital divide | Rural residents | Nationwide (USA) | "To ensure access and reliable broadband services for K-12 education, it requires a collaborative approach between the federal, state, and local levels." (p. 10) | Researchers measured digital opportunity (SDO) by looking at "access, usage, speed, and ownership of PC with internet subscription" (p. 2). They also conducted a cost-benefit analysis "to show the relationship between tangible social and economic outcomes with the investment cost of improving digital access and internet quality" (p. 2). | "Our investigation revealed the discrepancy between broadband usage and access and thus adoption appeared to be a factor that is not apparent in the current discussion of the digital divide." (p. 8) | "Historically, broadband deployment or upgrades tends to occur in areas with higher economic activities (Ford, 2018). Therefore, most of the rural areas continue to fall behind in digital infrastructure and broadband development." (pp. 9-10) Also, "access to broadband does not assure PC ownership or internet use at home" (p. 3). | N/A | The study recommends that policy barriers for local broadband expansion be removed, and fiber-optic be prioritized for schools. Content creators and software developers are encouraged to offer e-learning options that "can accommodate low-speed or bandwidth situations" (p. 10). Efforts should also be directed towards "improving physical access in high-need areas with targeted training and resources for parents and teachers" (p. 10) to benefit students. School administrators and district leaders need to consider "technology as an integrated part of their facilities and services to the students and their families" (p. 10). Additionally, "access to broadband internet and keyboard-enabled digital devices among K-12 students should be part of a 'basic school supply' in our current education system if the goal is to equalize the student’s digital opportunity" (p. 9). | Jim, C. K., Grant, A., & Ladd, B. T. (2021). Visualization of the Digital Divide Among K-12 Students: Open Data, Quantitative Measures, and Policy Implications. | (Jim et al., 2021) | |
| Journal article | Digital Divides: K-12 Student Profiles and Online Learning | "The purpose of this article is to consider how student profiles relate to academic performance in K-12 online learning. It is too soon to measure data and explore the consequences of online learning for students amidst the coronavirus pandemic (and unclear if such data will ever be available). Therefore, we instead examine robust data on a statewide online program that previously scaled to fill educational programming gaps for other reasons, mainly staffing issues, credit recovery, and geographic isolation. These unique data allow us to consider students’ profiles based on several traits: exceptionality, socioeconomic status, gender, and the geographic classification of their home school district." (p. 3) "This research analyzes Statewide Online Program (or SOP, which is the pseudonym used here). SOP began in 2004 with the purpose of serving rural school children across an entire southeastern state....The scope of SOP has expanded and now serves students in every school district in the state,and students may take courses based on a variety of reasons and personal preferences." (p. 6) | Digital divides: K-12 student profiles and online learning | 2021 | K-12 online learning; online courses; special education; coronavirus; geography | Rural residents, People with disabilities, Racial or ethnic minorities, Low income populations | Other state(s) | The findings of the study expand on the academic conversation about the digital divide and suggest that school administrators may need to establish learning mitigation strategies to account for emergent difficulties related to all levels of the digital divide during widespread online learning during the pandemic. The study also suggests that leaders should consider digital divide issues in future online learning placements. The sample of students analyzed in the study is not the same as the sample of students forced to remain at home due to the coronavirus pandemic, but the researchers suggest that their findings are instructive to the pandemic reality. | Demographic "data come from the National Center for Education Statistics (NCES) and the state department of education (SDE) that funds SOP" (p. 7); this dataset was then merged with school district data. | The results presented in the study "suggest that, despite the spread of access in terms of course content, other levels of the digital divide created unequal learning outcomes" (p. 16). | "Our findings elevate those concerns because we show students identified with certain exceptionalities were most likely to struggle. We also show students who identify as male, students from disadvantaged socioeconomic backgrounds, and students from cities or fringe rural areas were more likely to struggle than those students without these backgrounds." (p. 17) | N/A | "We hope this information will help leaders and policymakers determine the students who may need extra support [e.g. students with exceptionalities, students from disadvantaged socioeconomic backgrounds, and those who live in cities or fringe rural areas] upon return to the classroom, especially in situations where students have no choice but to use online learning based on their circumstances....we expect administrators to continue working with students and families to decide if they should enroll in online courses or stay in face-to-face courses." (p. 17) | Mann, B., Li, W., & Besnoy, K. (2021). Digital Divides: K-12 Student Profiles and Online Learning. Education Policy Analysis Archives, 29(112), n112. | (Mann et al., 2021) | |
| Website | How to Close the Digital Divide in the U.S. | The article discusses the issue of the digital divide, which refers to "the gap between those who have access to reliable internet services and those who do not," particularly in the United States. The article explains how the COVID-19 pandemic has highlighted the urgent need to address this issue, as many Americans struggled to access critical services, education, and work opportunities due to their lack of reliable internet connectivity and digital devices. The article disaggregated the digital divide into four distinct components and scored the 50 states along each of these: 1- Infrastructure (internet speed, broadband coverage) 2- Inclusivity (affordable broadband) 3- Institutions (Political prioritization of broadband strategy; best practices of government use of technology for public services; restrictions on alternative local broadband solutions, such as municipal networks.) 4- Digital proficiency (How well people can navigate the digital world, which is shaped by demographic profile, education levels, political tolerance, degree of skepticism about news sourced from social media.) | How to Close the Digital Divide in the U.S. | 2021 | Digital divide | N/A | Nationwide (USA) | This analysis of the current state of the digital divide in America does not highlight any currently effective interventions or programs; however, the author makes a strong case for the importance of addressing the digital divide, e.g. "Access to reliable internet is also a strong predictor of economic opportunity." | "Using the FCC’s cost structures on these revised figures, our research team analyses the budget [Biden's infrastructure budget] need to be at least $240 billion — $175 billion more than the $65 billion allocated under the terms of the current bipartisan deal." | "Internet infrastructure is, of course, an essential element of the divide, but infrastructure alone does not necessarily translate into adoption and beneficial use," which is something that policymakers and researchers need to keep in mind moving forward. | "The inability to use the internet pushes access to many essential services out of reach. Often, this compounds other inequities and historical injustices." | This article was part of the "research initiative, Imagining a Digital Economy for All (IDEA) 2030 (established in collaboration with the Mastercard Center for Inclusive Growth)." | Recommendations from the author: 1- Use a “Romer” tax to cover the budget shortfall. 2- Coordinate locally appropriate solutions. 3- Recruit Big Tech and internet service providers (ISPs) to help close gaps. 4- Identify gap areas and invite public-private solutions. 5- Update and expand existing affordability programs. 6- Build in future-proofing. 7- Invest in digital literacy. | Fernández-Muñoz, J., Kiptaş, D., & Lozano, J. (2021). How to Close the Digital Divide in the U.S. Harvard Business Review. https://hbr.org/2021/07/how-to-close-the-digital-divide-in-the-u-s | (Fernández-Muñoz et al., 2021) | |
| Journal article | Rural Schools and the Digital Divide | This quantitative investigation aimed to improve understanding of rural teacher technological usage frequencies and perceived effectiveness of various software programs and web-based technologies in the classroom. Furthermore, the researcher-designed questionnaire examined ways in which rural teachers acquire technology skills and their largest barriers to implementation. The study found that rural schools perceive technology to be effective, but face obstacles to successful integration. The article suggests that teachers should be trained and familiarized with various technologies by their school administration. The article provides 11 recommendations to guide the adoption and implementation process of technology in rural schools, including developing goals and objectives early on, addressing barriers to technology usage, providing continuous professional development opportunities for faculty, and recognizing that some students may not have regular internet access. Finally, the article suggests regularly evaluating the technology integration process and using data-driven decisions to build upon strengths and address barriers to implementation. | Rural Schools and the Digital Divide | 2021 | Digital divide, rural schools, educational technology, teacher perceptions, barriers to use of technology | Rural residents | Other state(s) | Rural | While "rural educators have differing opinions on usage and effectiveness of various web-based technologies and software. Teachers revealed personal trial and error as the most common way of new technology knowledge and skill acquisition" (p. 25). "Additionally, fellow faculty and staff served as an important acquisition resource" (p. 34) "Results showed document creation, class websites, and video sharing received the highest perceptions of effectiveness. Rural teachers used these technologies on a more frequent basis than prior findings from a national study of public-school teachers (Gray et al., 2010)." (p. 34) | Conclusions were drawn from a survey completed by 860 K-12 educators working in rural public school systems in a Mid-Atlantic state. | "Student access to technology influences the capability and effectiveness of instructional strategies during and after class time." (p. 34) "Results showed most teachers rarely utilized learning management systems (e.g. Google Classroom). However, despite lack of use, respondents perceived the technology to be effective." (p. 35) | "Participants reported budgetary issues as the largest barrier to technology implementation, followed by student internet access at home" (p. 25) "Based on responses, it appears low usage frequencies are more likely to be attributed to an absence of financial resources necessary to purchase district-wide access rights across rural districts than lack of teacher interest." (p. 35) | N/A | "One potential solution may be training and implementation of smartphone-friendly technologies." (p. 34) It is important for "teachers to integrate technologies that permit stakeholders—including students and parents—to use at no cost" (p. 34). | Kormos, E., & Wisdom, K. (2021). Rural schools and the digital divide: Technology in the learning experience. Theory & Practice in Rural Education, 11(1). | (Kormos & Wisdom, 2021) |
| Journal article | Navigating (and Disrupting) the Digital Divide: Urban Teachers’ Perspectives on Secondary Mathematics Instruction During COVID‑19 | "This study examines the perspectives and lived experiences of 10 urban secondary mathematics teachers from two epicenters of COVID-19 in the United States regarding their transition to digital learning during the 2019–2020 academic year." (p. 1) | Navigating (and Disrupting) the Digital Divide: Urban Teachers’ Perspectives on Secondary Mathematics Instruction During COVID-19 | 2021 | Digital divide, COVID-19 · Equity-oriented technology integration · Mathematics education · Urban education | Low income populations | Other state(s) | Urban | Lessons learned: 1- Technology Integration to Advance Mathematics Instruction - "mathematics education must fnd ways to capitalize on the use of digital tools to provide additional opportunities for students to interact with mathematical concepts in various settings (e.g., asynchronous, synchronous)" (p. 19), which means "resources (e.g., subscriptions, training) and time must be given to teachers so that they can identify which digital tools and pedagogies are efective in teaching and learning mathematics per their students’ specifc learning needs" (p. 20) 2- Training to Support Digital Instruction - "Research-based professional development that prepares teachers for digital instruction is necessary to help teachers design efective online lessons for both face-to-face and remote learning." (p. 20) 3- Open Access to Technology - "Targeted eforts must provide basic access to digital resources and the skills needed to use them." (p. 21), and "This process can begin with initiatives to update digital infrastructure in marginalized communities, provide technology and internet subscriptions that are afordable for low-income families, and ofer training to use technology for home-based education." (p. 21) | The lessons learned were gleaned from phenomenological interviews conducted with all the study participants (10 secondary math teachers in urban schools). | "it is possible that schooling favoring those who are best able to access digital resources and to whom this distanced variation is preferable may broaden disparities." (p. 22) | "digital divide barriers (e.g., lack of technology equipment, unreliable equipment, lack of technical support)" (p. 22) | N/A | "To move away from a digital divide that often negatively impacts spaces of marginality and urbanicity, opportunities must be in place that prioritize digital equity, where both access and knowledge to use digital resources are available for teachers and students." (p. 22) | Moldavan, A. M., Capraro, R. M., & Capraro, M. M. (2021). Navigating (and disrupting) the digital divide: Urban teachers’ perspectives on secondary mathematics instruction during COVID-19. The Urban Review, 1-26. | (Moldavan et al., 2021) |
| Journal article | Changes in Mobile Broadband Infrastructure in Georgia During The Covid-19 Pandemic | The article investigates whether the outbreak of the pandemic and the increased attention to providing adequate internet access was accompanied by increases in the provision of mobile broadband in Georgia. | Changes in Mobile Broadband Infrastructure in Georgia During the COVID−19 Pandemic | 2022 | Broadband access | Rural residents, Aging populations | Other state(s) | Urban, Rural | The study found that the differences in antennas per capita between rural, micropolitan, and metropolitan areas have reduced during the pandemic. Rural areas are catching up faster to metropolitan levels, with the gap shrinking "from -1.44 antennas per capita in March 2020 to -0.46 in September 2020" (p. 342). There have been changes in the expansion patterns "during the pandemic regarding population socioeconomic characteristics" (p. 342), with "increased expansion in areas with elderly concentration" (p. 342), "higher shares of households without internet subscriptions also saw a disproportional growth in antennas" (p. 342) in rural populations, and "In micropolitan areas, expansion during the pandemic was larger in areas with higher income" (p. 342). | The study measured changes in broadband infrastructure by looking at census tracts and antennas per capita pre- and post-pandemic. | "antennas per capita may not signify the same access levels across areas, given differences in census tract size, population density, and broadband infrastructure availability beyond LTE" (p. 349) | "the limits of mobile broadband to the performance of specific activities such as working or studying have been well-documented during the pandemic" (p. 349) | N/A | "Under-connectedness remains a key challenge to be addressed to assure real equity in access." (p. 349) | Nazareno, L., Zegura, E., & Yang Liu, C. (2022). Changes in Mobile Broadband Infrastructure in Georgia During The COVID− 19 Pandemic. Journal of Information Policy. | (Nazareno, 2022) |
| White Paper | Determinants of Internet skills, uses and outcomes. A systematic review of the second- and third-level digital divide | In this systematic review on digital divide literature published in English between 2011-2016, the researchers found a lack of attention on third level divide, which is defined as internet outcomes (leisure, social connection, education and employment, property, etc.). The authors also identified that most determinants reported in studies are sociodemographic and socioeconomic. This is limited as economic, social, and cultural determinants also need to be considered in research on the digital divide. | Determinants of Internet skills, uses and outcomes. A systematic review of the second- and third-level digital divide | 2017 | Digital equity, Digital literacy, Digital divide | N/A - This was a literature review trying to identify gaps in the research rather than an evaluation of a particular iniative, intervention, or program. | N/A - This was a literature review trying to identify gaps in the research rather than an evaluation of a particular iniative, intervention, or program. | The systematic literature review was limited by the search terms/parameters (i.e. only looking at research published in English from 2011-2016 that explicitly mentioned the digital divide). | Digital divide research uses various and inconsistent terminology. | N/A | The field needs to consider internet outcomes more and not just internet access/skills, and the field needs to expand its determinants for outcomes beyond sociodemographic and socioeconomic. Additionally, we need to develop a common vocabulary across all digital divide research, e.g. "we recommend to use the term digital skills when referring to the skills needed to use the Internet in general" (p. 1614). | Scheerder, A., Van Deursen, A., & Van Dijk, J. (2017). Determinants of Internet skills, uses and outcomes. A systematic review of the second-and third-level digital divide. Telematics and informatics, 34(8), 1607-1624. | ( Scheerder et al., 2017) | |||
| Journal article | A cost study of fixed broadband access networks for rural areas☆ | This study looked at costing models for rural access to internet (specifically high-capacity broadband access networks) in Europe and found rural access is the most expensive compared to urban and suburban. They found state subsidies can be very successful at ensuring rural broadband access. The authors cautioned about digital divides within rural areas, specifically between houses inside the town area and houses outside the town area. They end by saying more research needs to be conducted on internet demand in rural areas and on the costs of the different types of broadband networks. | A cost study of fixed broadband access networks for rural areas☆ | 2016 | Digital equity, Digital divide, Digital inclusion | Rural residents | International | Rural | Using public subsidies to bring broadband to rural areas was a more cost-effective way of addressing the digital divide. | The costing models looked at "The cost per home passed and the cost per home connected" (p. 764). | The different costs of broadband rollout in various geographic locations (referred to as geotypes) could negatively impact policy decisions as officials are more likely to focus on the more cost efficient (or least expensive) broadband deployment options. | It is more expensive to rollout broadband in rural areas, which means it will likely require state aid to supplement the cost. | This study sought "to understand the cost implications of the rollout of broadband networks that meet the broadband targets of 30 Mbps or 100 Mbps as defined in the European Digital Agenda" (p. 771). | They recommend having a National Broadband Plan that specifies how and what capacity of broadband will be provided in rural areas. | Schneir, J. R., & Xiong, Y. (2016). A cost study of fixed broadband access networks for rural areas. Telecommunications Policy, 40(8), 755-773. | (Schneir & Xiong, 2016) |
| Journal article | Poverty alleviation through e-commerce: Village involvement and demonstration policies in rural China | This journal review looks at multiple datasets in rural areas of China to describe the relationships between ecommerce and poverty for these villages. It also suggests how policy support can aid rural, marginalized communities, what infrastructure can advance internet in a more equitable way, and addressing policy considerations for affordable internet in rural areas. | Poverty alleviation through e-commerce: Village involvement and demonstration policies in rural China | 2021 | Digital skills, Digital divide | Rural residents, Low income populations | International | Rural | "Our findings indicate that rural e-commerce has a significantly positive effect on personal income." (p. 1009) Investment in e-commerce in recent years has been critical in increasing income and alleviating poverty. Also effective: policy designed to seek and improve poor areas' access to internet education infrastructure | Success was measured utilizing the Heckit model for research and a propensity score matching model. | While there were barriers to participating in e-commerce, the results of participation appear to be entirely positive. | It was found that rural communities lack digital literacy and vocational training specific to e-commerce; this is the main reason why this population lacks e-commerce. | China's National Rural E-commerce Comprehensive Demonstration Project | "rural e-commerce could actually promote rural income and enhance rural development....[and] professional skills training for e-commerce contributes to increasing income" (p. 1010) "policy designs should seek to improve poor areas’ access to hard (internet) and soft (education) infrastructure." (p. 1010) | Chao, P. E. N. G., Biao, M. A., & Zhang, C. (2021). Poverty alleviation through e-commerce: Village involvement and demonstration policies in rural China. Journal of Integrative Agriculture, 20(4), 998-1011. | (Chao et al., 2021) |
| Journal article | The bad news is that the digital access divide is here to stay: domestically installed bandwidths among 172 countries for 1986 – 2014 | This article published by Telecommunications Policy "measures the nationally installed bandwidth potential of 172 countries from 1986 to 2014" (p. 1) It is a measure to further understand the amount of bandwidth placed in all countries and how people view possible equal access to global bandwidth and policies. This article took an approach to discuss how technological advances are not slowing down, but did not go into as much depth exploring the barriers to technology advancement and access. | The bad news is that the digital access divide is here to stay: domestically installed bandwidths among 172 countries for 1986 – 2014 | 2016 | Digital divide | Veterans, Low income populations | International | "The overarching finding is that the divide in terms of bandwidth does not show any clear monotonic pattern. It fluctuates up and down over the decades as the result of an intricate interplay between incessant technological progress and diffusion of technology. The bandwidth divide between high- and low income countries has first increased and only decreased below historic levels very recently during 2012–2014." (p. 1) When trying to understand (and measure) the digital divide, it's more effective to measure bandwidth quality rather than individual Internet subscriptions. | To create national bandwidth statistics, the study used three sets of data: "the number of telecommunications subscriptions (fixed and mobile); the kind of access technology per subscription (like DSL, GSM, etc.); and corresponding bandwidth per access technology" (p. 5). | There are multiple tests used for measuring bandwidth, each with their own flaws, limitations, and biases. "The last three decades show a gradual loss of dominance of today’s high income countries. High income countries contributed some 85-86 % of the global subscriptions and installed bandwidth potential in 1986, but in 2013 merely 29 % of subscriptions and 58 % of bandwidth." (p. 9) | "the bandwidth divide is linked to the income divide, which is notoriously persistent" (p. 1) | N/A | This practice of measuring bandwidth (or the idea of measuring bandwidth) helps programs or organizations internationally install the capacity and provide effective traffic for the fraction of each bandwidth used. Having the ability to measure bandwidth in each country will help keep track of the digital divide in rural and low income areas to see if this is helping those areas become more equitable. | Hilbert, M. (2016). The bad news is that the digital access divide is here to stay: Domestically installed bandwidths among 172 countries for 1986–2014. Telecommunications Policy, 40(6), 567-581. | (Hilbert, 2016) | |
| Journal article | An analysis of the determinants of internet access | Education and income levels were the strongest determinants to internet access. The substantial variation in internet pricing was largely driven by how rural the area is. The paper, most importantly, found that subscribing to internet was only modestly driven by price, suggesting subsidies for internet may only have a slight effect on increasing access. | An analysis of the determinants of internet access | 2005 | Digital equity, Digital divide | N/A | Nationwide (USA) | N/A - Rather than measuring the effectiveness of an initiative or intervention, "This paper analyzes the impact of a variety of socio-economic influences on households’ decision to pay for basic Internet access, using a discrete choice framework, and making use of a unique survey of Internet use among American households." (p. 731) | N/A | Using subsidies to increase access, only showed to have a slight effect on the decision making to seek out internet access on survey participants. | "African Americans and Hispanics are less likely to be online than other racial categories, and people who are married are more likely to have Internet access....the monthly price of Internet access has a statistically significant but effectively small impact on Internet access." (pp. 753-754) | N/A | "The large positive coefficients for both schooling and student status hint that infrastructure subsidies for schools, like the Federally-funded e-rate program may have larger payoffs." (p. 754) | Chaudhuri, A., Flamm, K. S., & Horrigan, J. (2005). An analysis of the determinants of internet access. Telecommunications Policy, 29(9-10), 731-755. | (Chaudhuri et al., 2005) | |
| Journal article | “What about special ed?“: Barriers and enablers for teaching with technology in special education | "The present study seeks to (1) describe important enablers and barriers for SPED teacher use of technology in K-12 before and during remote learning, (2) understand how structural, teacher, and student-level factors influence SPED teachers’ opportunities for teaching with technology, and (3) highlight emerging problems for SPED populations in technology-enabled learning. Results suggest that the most prominent enablers and barriers for technology use in special education are structural (e.g., decision-making around teacher training and technology resources, structures for student digital literacy training), but manifest at the teacher and student levels." (p. 1) | “What about special ed?“: Barriers and enablers for teaching with technology in special education | 2022 | Digital equity, Digital inclusion, Special education, educational technology, technology integration | People with disabilities | Other state(s) | "Teachers reported positive experiences learning from other special educators either through social media, text message group chats, or specialized training offered through their school districts. Schools with strong sharing cultures among colleagues, specifically between general and special educators, also seemed to have positive impacts on SPED teachers’ technology experiences." (p. 9) | Success with SPED technology integration was measured via surveys and interviews with 20 teachers engaged in remote instruction during the pandemic. | "Special educators’ experiences with technology confirm prior findings that SPED lacks the technology resources they need to provide rich digital learning opportunities and that technology is underutilized for SPED populations, especially when resources are limited or SPED teachers are not trained" (p. 11) | "Findings suggest school- and district-level structures may exacerbate digital divides for SPED through (1) unequal resource allocation for devices and internet, (2) lack of student digital literacy training, (3) limited SPED teacher training, (4) omission of SPED in decision-making about technology, (5) unsustainable SPED job roles, and (6) lack of inclusive home-school communication. These structural barriers had significant consequences for SPED students’ access to technology and raised important questions about legal rights to FAPE [Free Appropriate Public Education]." (p. 11) Additional factors contributing to the disparity between technology access/training in SPED as opposed to GE include school-level decision-making and inadequate funding for SPED. | N/A | Future work might take an intersectional approach to investigate resource allocation for marginalized populations at the intersections of race and ethnicity, SPED status, and SES. "Teachers reached more families, especially more marginalized families, using multiple methods of communication, including texting and translation services in communication apps (e.g., Remind). They also felt that schools that prioritized using home language and common modes of communication (i.e., texting) had accessible home-school communication structures." (p. 12) | Starks, A. C., & Reich, S. M. (2023). “What about special ed?“: Barriers and enablers for teaching with technology in special education. Computers & Education, 193, 104665. | (Starks Reich, 2023) | |
| Journal article | Understanding Mobile Service Substitution and the Urban-Rural Digital Divide in Nigeria | "This study seeks to understand the urban-rural digital divide and how the relationship between cellular voice and mobile Internet varies across this divide" (p. 1). "The evidence drawn from the econometric analysis of historical preferences of a crosssection of mobile users in Nigeria indicates that the digital divide in use of traditional mobile services such as VC is closing across urban and rural active mobile users" (p. 14). "The results show that the increase in total minutes of voice calls, and total volume of data used by the sample over time, is largely driven by increase in the average volume used per person. Urban users have a significantly higher use of mobile Internet than rural users. The result showed mobile Internet is both a substitute and a complement to voice calls" (p.1). | Understanding Mobile Service Substitution and the Urban-Rural Digital Divide in Nigeria | 2017 | Digital literacy, Digital skills, Digital divide | Rural residents | International | Urban, Rural | N/A - This study was a survey conducted in Nigeria to better understand the digital divide in Sub-Saharan Africa. | N/A | N/A | Factors impacting/driving the digital divide: age, gender, geographical zone | N/A | "Policies that focus on increasing digital (Internet) literacy to the offline population and online population in rural areas is needed to prepare for the possibility of a future dominated by online communications and also increase economic productivity through facilitating online education and increased connectivity and research abilities." (p. 14) | Ogbo, E. and Brown, T. & Sicker, D. (2017). Understanding Mobile Service Substitution and the Urban-Rural Digital Divide in Nigeria https://ssrn.com/abstract=2944367 or http://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.2944367 | (Ogbo et al., 2017) |
| Journal article | Modeling the second-level digital divide: A five-country study of social differences in Internet use | This study looked at a review across five countries on second level digital divide (internet usage). The study found across all studied countries, young people used the internet more, especially for entertainment and social interaction. Employment is associated with increased commercial use of the internet. The study results suggest that "low-use groups such as older adults and those with lower levels of education and Internet experience—despite having physical Internet access—may become increasingly disconnected from the economic, social, cultural, and human capital attainable through Internet use." | Modeling the second-level digital divide: A five-country study of social differences in Internet use | 2016 | Digital equity, Digital divide | Rural residents, Aging populations, Low income populations | International | The study confirms that merely increasing access to Internet does not correspond to equality in Internet usage. It focused on mapping the digital divide rather than addressing it. | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | Moritz Büchi, Just, N., & Latzer, M. (2016). Modeling the second-level digital divide: A five-country study of social differences in Internet use. New Media & Society, 18(11), 2703-2722. 10.1177/1461444815604154 | (Moritz Büchi et al., 2016) | |
| Journal article | A new educational normal an intersectionality-led exploration of education, learning technologies, and diversity during COVID-19 | "This article reports on a study structured in two parts and informed by a multi-method research approach that is well aligned with intersectionality theory [18]. The first part of the methodology included eight interviews that were conducted with parents of underserved students (e.g., varying in income, gender, race, and ethnicity). The interviews acted as a needs assessment to develop a deeper understanding of access to and perceptions of learning technologies, teachers’ practice, online classroom environments, and related policies. The second part of the research study included three mixed group interviews of nine total teachers. It served as an opportunity to debrief and summarize opportunities to expand and consolidate what had been learned from parents." (p. 1) | A new educational normal an intersectionality-led exploration of education, learning technologies, and diversity during COVID-19 | 2021 | Digital divide, Community of practice, Covid-19 , Education, Intersectionality, Technology | Racial or ethnic minorities, Low income populations | Other state(s) | "Addressing the second research question, COVID-19 was seen as an opportunity to discuss intersectionality topics for some parents and teachers, especially black parents and teachers. Indeed, the pandemic and events related to racial protests were able to work as a pivotal event for addressing related topics like racism and privilege with children. It helped them push conversations towards diversity and inclusion related objectives." (p. 7) | "The personal stories from parents and teachers point to three main highlights related to our research questions. First, the economic digital divide was surprisingly limited for this group during the COVID-19 pandemic. This was due, in part, to the equipment provided by the schools; such a finding is well aligned with the increasing focus on digital literacy and use rather than access. However, both parents and teachers recognized the insufficient support for students with special needs, who seemed to have suffered the most from the pandemic. Moreover, both teachers and parents also agreed about the importance of the home environment as a factor of stress (e.g., whether students would have cameras on or off)." (p. 7) | "There was a perceived gap in usability. Some parents did acknowledge the difficulties encountered by teachers, and vice versa. There was evidence, though, of a sort of reciprocal accusation between the groups about not being able to handle the challenges of the remote learning experience." (p. 7) | Misperceptions and a lack of communication led to the disconnect between teachers and parents during remote learning. | N/A | "The parents noticed a need for an ongoing conversation with all the parties involved; they recognized the need for a community with shared goals and an ongoing practice" (p. 7) | Gandolfi, E., Ferdig, R. E., & Kratcoski, A. (2021). A new educational normal an intersectionality-led exploration of education, learning technologies, and diversity during COVID-19. Technology in Society, 66, 101637. 10.1016/j.techsoc.2021.101637 | (Gandolfi et al., 2021) | |
| Journal article | The digital divide shifts to differences in usage | The study based in the Netherlands found lower educated, lower income, and disabled people tend to use the internet more (in contrast to studies from the US that find this population uses the internet less often). By type of usage, they found this population spends their time on the internet most in leisure way (e.g. entertainment, social connection), while higher income and higher educated individuals use the internet in more productive ways (i.e. personal development, information gathering), possibly exacerbating inequalities. | The digital divide shifts to differences in usage | 2013 | Digital equity, Digital divide | Aging populations, People with disabilities, Low income populations | International | N/A | N/A | "The results of the current investigation suggest that overcoming digital divides is a rather complex challenge that goes beyond improving access or Internet skills." (p. 522) | "There are strong indications that parts of the population will be excluded from several Internet activities." (p. 522) | N/A | "Internet activities related to information, career and personal development could be made more attractive for larger parts of the population. Finally, the improvement and spread of positions in education and on the labour market (actually following school or adult education and having an appealing job) might show the most positive contributions to the reduction of differences in usage." (p. 522) | Alexander JAM, v. D., & Jan AGM, v. D. (2014). The digital divide shifts to differences in usage. New Media & Society, 16(3), 507-526. 10.1177/1461444813487959 | (Alexander JAM & Jan AGM, 2014) | |
| Journal article | The Third-Level Digital Divide: Who Benefits Most from Being Online? | This study takes "a first step toward creating an operational framework for measuring tangible outcomes of internet use and linking these to the inequalities identified by digital divide research" (p. 29). They assessed different outcomes in a representative sample recruited from a Dutch online panel. | The Third-Level Digital Divide: Who Benefits Most from Being Online? | 2015 | Digital divide, Digital inclusion | Rural residents, People with disabilities, Low income populations | International | "To some extent the findings suggest that access to and use of the internet might amplify existing inequalities above and beyond the intensity of internet use" (p. 45), so we cannot assume that any intervention will have automatic results for all populations. | They used the following classifications to categorize internet usage: economic, social, educational, political, and Institutional. These fields of internet use were then used to determine which groups (e.g. gender, age, educational level, income, marital status, occupation, residency) benefit the most from internet use. | As this was an exploratory study, the sample size was limited and some of the domains were overly simplified, and researchers recommend that future research focus on the intersections of various domains. | "Although our measures are designed with specificity and objectivity in mind, they are still grounded in self-reports of offline outcomes, rather than independently verifiable third-party information such as reports from governmental entities." (p. 48) | N/A | It is important for digital equity or literacy programs to consider all the identity domains into which their participants can be categorized when designing their initatives and analyzing their effectiveness. | van Deursen, A.J.A.M. and Helsper, E.J. (2015). The third-level digital divide: Who benefits most from being online? Communication and Information Technologies Annual (Studies in Media and Communications, Vol. 10), Emerald Group Publishing Limited, Bingley, pp. 29-52. https://doi.org/10.1108/S2050-206020150000010002 | (Van Deursen & Helsper, 2015) | |
| Journal article | Beyond Apple Pies, Popsicles, and Patriotism: Leveraging Digital Literacy to Unpack Matters of Race, Power, and Privilege | "This article is autoethnographic in that it spotlights the work being done in a literacy methods course for preservice teachers. Specifically, consideration is given to my efforts to engage preservice teachers in utilizing ICTs in ways that develop critical consciousness while promoting social justice and equity. The course explores the variables that affect literacy development of students in middle school." (p. 26) | Beyond Apple Pies, Popsicles, and Patriotism: Leveraging Digital Literacy to Unpack Matters of Race, Power, and Privilege | 2021 | Digital literacy, Social justice, equity, educational technology, teacher education | Racial or ethnic minorities | Other state(s) | "Discussions surrounding digital or new literacies, social justice, and equity should not occur in isolation. It is necessary for such discussions to become part of the overall discourse and to be coupled with content-based learning that illustrates how ICTs can be used to advocate for social justice and equity. Such efforts should not be relegated to a single course but shared amongst content courses within a teacher education program." (p. 38) "It becomes important to prepare teacher educators for performances specific to the role of training future teachers by including activities, projects, and explorations that replicate the myriad ways that P-12 teachers can enhance teaching and learning by capitalizing on the power of ICTs in exposing inequities and promoting social justice and equity. The hope is that this exposure to educational uses for ICTs will create a mindset that makes both preservice and, thus, in-service teachers more amenable to incorporating technology into their classrooms in ways that interrogate inequities and foster advocacy in and for marginalized populations." (p. 38) | "This project allowed each of the preservice teachers an opportunity to contribute to a curated list of resources on a multitude of social justice topics....these explorations positioned the preservice teachers to advocate for their future students and to enact culturally sustaining practices in their future classrooms." (p. 36) | N/A | N/A | N/A | Critical literacy, critical pedagogies, and social justice are linked together. As such, it is the responsibility of teacher educators to integrate digital literacy and social justice practices across their programs to better prepare P-12 teachers. The author also highlights the importance of multicultural approaches to teaching. | Shelby-Caffey, C. (2021). Beyond apple pies, popsicles, and patriotism: Leveraging digital literacy to unpack matters of race, power, and privilege. International Journal of Multicultural Education, v23 n3 p25-42. | (Shelby-Caffey, 2021) | |
| Journal article | Collateral benefits of Internet use: Explaining the diverse outcomes of engaging with the Internet | This article is an examination of how much economic, cultural, social, and personal engagements in internet uses have outcomes on each other. This data results from a survey to a population in the Netherlands and tests the hypothesis that "One type of Internet use leads to collateral benefits in other domains (e.g. social use of the Internet affects economic, cultural, and personal outcomes)." In analyzing results, the researchers controlled for the participants' socioeconomic or sociocultural backgrounds. Collateral benefits: "whether use of the Internet for economic, cultural, social, or personal domain activities could lead to positive outcomes in domains other than the one the use was located in." | Collateral benefits of Internet use: Explaining the diverse outcomes of engaging with the Internet | 2017 | Digital literacy, Digital skills, Digital divide, Digital inclusion | People with disabilities, Racial or ethnic minorities, Low income populations | International | Rural | "The findings suggest that what people do online and the skills they have are more important than who they are when it comes to inequalities in outcomes of Internet use and that Internet uses in a particular domain can result in outcomes in another domain. Especially interesting is that personal and social uses of the Internet have the most collateral benefits....This study seems to suggest that economic digital capital is less important to give people access to other resources than the more popular uses of the Internet. In other words, digital inequalities research needs to adopt a semiologic rather than an economistic approach if it wants to explain how use might lead to the acquisition of different capitals." | "This large-scale theory–guided empirical study employed measures of tangible outcomes based on self-report of how the Internet may be beneficial rather than objective measures such as gains in employment and academic achievement." | Future studies should focus on outcome measures and longitudinal research to validate self-report measures. | This was not a longitudinal study and in order to be feasible for other demographics, areas, or countries there should be longitudinal outlook on these measures from internet users. | N/A | Investigations of internet use and digital inequalities needs to keep in mind that internet use is connected across domains | Van Deursen, A. J., & Helsper, E. J. (2018). Collateral benefits of Internet use: Explaining the diverse outcomes of engaging with the Internet. New media & society, 20(7), 2333–2351. https://doi.org/10.1177/1461444817715282 | (Van Deursen & Helsper, 2018) |
| Conference proceeding | What Do They Know? Digital Literacy Competencies of First-Year College Students | This descriptive research survey study sought to determine which digital skills and competencies first-year students acquire before entering college, and if those skills are adequate to achieve academic success in college. | What Do They Know? Digital Literacy Competencies of First-Year College Students | 2022 | Digital literacy, Digital skills, Information technology literacy, competencies, first-year college students | College students | Other state(s) | "This study has shown that students may need to learn new hardware, software, and operating system skills when transitioning to college. With almost 16% of students reporting taking no high school courses covering computer topics, colleges cannot make assumptions about student digital literacy. Far from being technology experts, only 34% consider themselves “tech savvy” and most rank themselves at the beginner or intermediate level on DLCs. The digital native stereotype is harmful to students who due to various circumstances, including the digital divide, do not arrive at college with the digital literacy competencies needed to succeed academically." (p. 78) | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | Institutions should offer formal and informal opportunities for students to develop the technological competencies they need in order to be successful. Researchers suggest beginning with programming, spreadsheets, and word processing skills, as those are skills that students have self-identified as important and are thus more likely to be of interest. | McCarron, E. & Frydenberg, M. (2022). What do they know? Digital literacy competencies of first-year college students. Proceedings of the EDSIG Conference, Clearwater, FL. Vol. 8 | (McCarron & Frydenberg, 2022) | |
| White Paper | The Mobile Economy: Africa 2016 | Written by "GSMA Intelligence, the definitive source of global mobile operator data, analysis and forecasts" (p. 1), this report overviews the efforts and impact of mobile broadband expansion in Africa. As the number of internet users in Africa tripled in the five years prior to this report, they've recognized the importance of addressing the digital divide. The GSMA Connected Society program has identified and worked to address 4 challenges to digital inclusion: network coverage, affordability, digital skills/awareness, and locally relevant content. Most of the work done thus far has focused on increasing access to mobile devices and internet, using mobile devices for digital identity initiatives, and using mobile money to improve financial inclusion. | The Mobile Economy - Africa 2016 | 2016 | Digital divide, Digital inclusion | Rural residents, Low income populations | International | Rural | Mobile operators share infrastructure to make it more cost effective/affordable to roll out mobile broadband networks in rural areas. Mobile networks partner with local startups or global corporations to create relevant digital content for users (e.g. EduMe and Wazazi Nipendeni in Tanzania, Airtel’s agricultural VAS M’Chikumbe in Malawi, Free Basics Initiative in Nigeria, and a local weather forecast service in Ghana). | From 2010 to 2015, there was an 11% growth in unique mobile subscribers and a 19% growth in smartphone adoption in Africa. | The organization did not share their shortcomings or obstacles in their report. | They identify four major consumer barriers to digital inclusion: lack of awareness and locally relevant content, affordability, and lack of digital literacy/skills, gender gap - “Women in Africa are on average 13% less likely to own a mobile phone than men" (p. 44), and the gap is even larger when looking at internet usage. | The report also shares work on digital inclusion tied to digital identity and financial iniatives. | Best practices include networking across organizations and leveraging different capabilities to have the maximum impact. | GSMA. (2016). The mobile economy: Africa 2016. | (GSMA, 2016) |
| Program or Initiative | Chicago Connected: 2021 Program Impact Report | First Kids Chicago partnered with the city of Chicago, Chicago Public Schools (CPS), donors, community-based organizations, and internet service providers (ISPs) to create Chicago Connected in 2020. They provide free internet access to high-need candidates: students from low-income families (as measured by FRL and Medicaid enrollment), multilingual learners, diverse learners, and students in transitional living situations. This program offers a scalable model for other communities and has been lauded as a national exemplar for digital equity initiatives. | CHICAGO CONNECTED | 2021 | Digital equity | English learners/not native speakers, Low income populations, Students | Other state(s) | Urban | In addition to the provision of internet access by Chicago Connected, "Chicago Public Schools (CPS) distributed over 200,000 devices to high-need students to enable learning, and the Chicago Connected partner community-based organizations (CBOs) are providing digital literacy training on how to use the internet" (p. 17). And in response to participant surveys indicating a need for more digital literacy training, "the Guiding Team launched a three-pronged approach to serving families’ digital literacy needs: self-paced resources, live trainings from local community-based organizations, and access to citywide, one-on-one tech support" (p. 22). | In the first year, they served nearly 64,000 students in 42,000 households. Students with activated codes also had higher attendance rates during remote learning. | The organization did not share their shortcomings or obstacles in their impact report. | The organization did not share their shortcomings or obstacles in their impact report. | N/A | They had a high response rate due to a "multi-pronged communication strategy including direct mail, phone/text, and email" (p. 21). | Kids First Chicago. (2023). Chicago Connected 2021 Program Impact Report. Kids First Chicago. https://static1.squarespace.com/static/5b212dce5417fcd9ddec5349/t/60d0aa0d68579e7a02ab86d9/1624287763153/2021-Chicago+Connected+-+Year+Review-vF-WEB.pdf | (Kids First Chicago, 2023) |
| Program or Initiative | Connected Nation | This program has been working to address the digital divide for over twenty years. It began in 2001 as the Center for Information Technology Enterprise, Inc. (CITE) before becoming ConnectKentucky in 2004; it then joined with parallel organizations in neighboring states under the Connected Nation umbrella in 2007. They have worked on initiatives related to broadband expansion, broadband mapping/analysis, broadband sustainability, providing computer access to "disadvantaged families, libraries, schools and community centers," free computer training, telework training and placement, community technology planning and development, telehealth, digital literacy, and preventing digital discrimination. | 20 Years of Service | Connected Nation | 2001 | Digital literacy, Digital divide | Veterans, Rural residents, English learners/not native speakers, Low income populations | Nationwide (USA) | Urban, Suburban, Rural | This organization has been unifying efforts to address the digital divide nationwide for over two decades. They conduct their own research, partner with corporate partners to offer free or discounted internet access and digital literacy training to communities in need, and offer guidance to state and local governments on policy development and implementation. | The Digital Works program offering telework training and placement has placed over 1000 graduates as of August 2020. | The organization did not share their shortcomings or obstacles on their website. | The organization did not share their shortcomings or obstacles on their website. | Connected Nation was a key advisor/partner in the 2011 national "Connect to Compete" initiative. In November 2020, in partnership with Funds of Learning, Connected Nation launched Connect K-12, "a free website that provides internet speed and pricing transparency information to help schools identify broadband solutions and negotiate better deals for services." That same month, they launched and administered the AT&T K-12 connected homework gap program, which provides free internet access and wi-fi hotspots to disadvantaged students nationwide. 3 new programs within the last two years: Teens Teach Tech, Achivery, and Digital Literacy and Learning (DLL) Program. | Best practices include networking across organizations and leveraging different capabilities to have the maximum impact. | Connected Nation. (2023, February 17). 20 years of Service. Image. Retrieved May 1, 2023, from https://connectednation.org/20-years-of-service/ | (Connected Nation, 2023) |
| Program or Initiative | Digital Divide Consults andDevices for VA Video Connect Appointments | Digital Divide Consult is a new program/initiative from VA to expand access to telehealth for veterans. They aid qualifying veterans by providing whatever they need to access VA telehealth, such as discounted phone and internet access, video-capable internet-connected devices, and mobile connectivity support for those devices. | Digital Divide Consults and Devices for VA Video Connect Appointments | 2021 | Digital divide, Digital inclusion | Veterans | Nationwide (USA) | Rural | The Digital Divide Consult works with each veteran to put them in touch with the programs/resources they need. | They define their success by boasting "VHA issued devices to about 41,000 patients during the first three quarters of fiscal year 2021" (p. ii). | The official report complains that not all distributed devices were actually used for their intended purpose as participants did not need to have a scheduled appointment prior to being lent a device. They also admitted to falling short on refurbishing returned devices so that they could be loaned out again. | The report blames the stressful conditions caused by the pandemic for the issues with policy implementation and oversight. | VA Video Connect is a telehealth app rolled out by Veterans Affairs in 2017. | They build on device-lending by adding a social worker component to identify and address/resolve participant needs and barriers to care. | U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs, Office of Inspector General. (2021). Review of Alleged Mismanagement of COVID-19 Outbreak Response at the Veterans Affairs North Texas Health Care System. https://www.va.gov/oig/pubs/VAOIG-21-02668-182.pdf | (U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs, Office of Inspector General, 2021) |
| Report to Congress | Coordination to Reduce Barriers to Reentry: lessons learned from COVID-19 and beyond (Report to Congress from the Reentry Coordination Council) | This report overviews barriers to reentry for incarcerated individuals, highlights successful reentry programs/initiatives, and offers recommendations for reducing barriers to reentry. They acknowledge digital literacy (of the lack thereof) as a barrier to reentry. Some successful programs included: VA’s Veterans Health Administration (VHA) - they used CARES Act funding to purchase iPads and data plans to facilitate communication between incarcerated veterans and VA outreach staff across 104 partner facilities; the Federal Communications Commission - they lowered caps on interstate calling rates and established international calling rates to improve inmates' ability to stay connected with their families while incarcerated. | Coordination to Reduce Barriers to Reentry: lessons learned from COVID-19 and beyond | 2022 | Digital literacy, Digital inclusion | Incarcerated individuals | Nationwide (USA) | Virtual services have increased flexibility/accessibility to programs and services for justice-impacted individuals (e.g. court access, telehealth, behavioral treatment and recovery support services, etc.) and allowed for "lighter touch supervision for low-risk probation and parole populations" (p. 15). | The Reentry Coordination Council cites results shared from exemplar programs as evidence of success for more general measures taken to address the digital needs of justice-impacted persons (i.e. incarcerated indiviudals, returning citizens, and their families). | Due to the pandemic, prison visitation was limited, so educational opportunities for inmates were greatly limited. Virtual learning was either not feasible or difficult to implement in many prisons. | Incarcerated individuals struggled to develop their digital literacy skills due to lack of internet access and technology available to inmates, lack of digital literacy training needed to successfully engage in virtual learning, and lack of device/internet access once released. | N/A | Best practices include making connections across organizations and sources of funding to meet the specific needs of each population. | Reentry Coordination Council. (2022). Coordination to reduce barriers to reentry: Lessons learned from COVID-19 and beyond. https://www.justice.gov/opa/press-release/file/1497911/download | (Reentry Coordination Council, 2022). | |
| Program or Initiative | Tech For Troops Exists To Serve Veterans As They Return To Civilian Life, Improve Their Skills, And Seek Better Employment | Tech For Troops began in 2013 in Richmond, VA collecting and refurbishing used computers, then providing them to veterans' support organizations. In addition to giving out technology at low cost, they now offer basic digital literacy training courses along with skills/workforce preparation in IT training, technology reuse, and computer recycling. | Tech For Troops Exists To Serve Veterans As They Return To Civilian Life, Improve Their Skills, And Seek Better Employment | 2013 | Digital literacy, Digital skills, Digital upskilling | Veterans | Nationwide (USA) | To address the digital divide, computers given to veterans come with a lifetime guarantee (the life of the veteran, not the device) and come with office software and are video-capable so that they can be used for virtual conferencing (e.g. telehealth appointments, job interviews); additionally, the training programs combine digital literacy with job/life skills. | The organization defines its success by the thousands of computers refurbished and sold at low cost to veterans nationwide. | The organization did not share their shortcomings or obstacles on their website. | The organization did not share their shortcomings or obstacles on their website. | N/A | This organization utilizes a sustainable business model: they hire the veterans they train to refurbish the computers that they give away to other veterans, and they are committed to recycling (reducing e-waste and carbon footprint). | Tech For Troops. (n.d.). Our Service to Veterans. https://techfortroops.org/services/veterans/ | (Tech For Troops, n.d.) | |
| Journal article | Gap in Willingness and Access to Video Visit Use Among Older High-risk Veterans: Cross-sectional Study | This study was conducted to better understand the feelings of high-needs, high-risk (HNHR) veterans, i.e. elderly veterans, about telehealth appointments. Of the 602 respondents to the questionnaire, 45.7% reported they were unwilling to use video visits, and of the respondents who were willing to use video visits, 21.1% reported that they did not have access to the requisite video-capable technology. Researchers concluded that "data from our project suggest that among vulnerable HNHR older adults, the proportion not ready for video visits may be much higher than the one-third previously reported for a cross-section of community-dwelling older adults and likely is approximately two-thirds of the HNHR veterans" (p. 11). | Gap in Willingness and Access to Video Visit Use Among Older High-risk Veterans: Cross-sectional Study | 2022 | Digital literacy, Digital divide | Veterans, Aging populations | Other state(s) | N/A - This was a survey to better understand the willingness of elderly veterans to engage in telehealth practices (e.g. video visits). | N/A | The reliance on telemedicine in the wake of Covid-19 has exacerbated the digital divide as it pertains to HNHR veterans. | HNHR veterans struggled to engage in telehealth options due to lack of video-capable device, lack of internet/data access, and digital illiteracy. | N/A | For reaching out to populations negatively impacted by the digittal divide, we need to use methods like face-to-face and questionnaires via mail or telephone. | Dang, S., Muralidhar, K., Li, S., Tang, F., Mintzer, M., Ruiz, J., & Willy, M. V. (2022). Gap in willingness and access to video visit use among older high-risk veterans: Cross-sectional study. Journal of Medical Internet Research, 24(4), 1-15. https://doi.org/10.2196/32570 | (Dang et al., 2022) | |
| Journal article | Poverty and Digital Divide: A Study in Urban Poor Neighborhoods | This study explores the relationship between poverty and the digital divide in urban poor areas. It aims to examine digital diffusion and literacy levels in poor neighborhoods, considering variations based on poverty levels, age, gender, and occupation. Findings indicate a digital divide among urban individuals, especially those with low incomes. Digital diffusion is more prominent among younger people and females, while digital literacy among the poor is low. The study suggests improving access to digital technology and providing assistance to enhance digital literacy skills. | Poverty and Digital Divide: A Study in Urban Poor Neighborhoods | 2021 | Digital literacy, Digital divide, Digital diffusion, poverty, urban poor | Low income populations | International | Urban | The study conducted a survey to measure digital diffusion and digital literacy among urban poor individuals in three villages in the Magelang district. The survey involved 151 participants. This study uses two indicators to assess the level of digital diffusion and digital literacy in poor neighborhoods. The first indicator measures digital diffusion by examining the proportion of people who own hardware or devices, such as mobile phones and smartphones, for internet access. The second indicator focuses on digital literacy, specifically the extent to which online sources of information are utilized within poor neighborhoods. | The study involved 151 participants from three urban areas, which suggests that the findings may not be fully representative or comprehensive. | The policy implications for the local governments: - Urban poor individuals are eager to receive more information, especially regarding government assistance programs. However, due to the low level of digital diffusion, these individuals are unable to fully benefit from improved access to services through digital platforms. - To address this, information should be delivered through both traditional channels, such as neighborhood leaders, and digital platforms, including websites, social media, and applications. - As digital diffusion increases, local governments should provide support to improve the digital literacy of urban poor individuals. This will enable them to effectively access and select relevant and reliable information using digital platforms. | Mulyaningsih, T., Wahyunengseh, R., & Hastjarjo, S. (2021). Poverty and Digital Divide: A Study in Urban Poor Neighborhoods. Jurnal Ilmu Sosial dan Ilmu Politik, 24(2), 189-203. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.22146/jsp.52325 | (Mulyaningsih et al., 2021) | |||
| Journal article | Going beyond affordability for digital equity: Closing the“Digital Divide”through outreach and training programs for older adults | The shift to virtual healthcare during the pandemic highlighted disparities in healthcare access caused by limited digital access. Many low-income individuals also have low digital literacy and lack access to computers and the internet. Government programs aim to address this issue, but they should focus not only on affordability but also on providing digital literacy training and support, particularly for older adults. This commentary emphasizes the need for training alongside internet access programs to effectively close the digital divide. | Going beyond affordability for digital equity: Closing the“Digital Divide”through outreach and training programs for older adults | 2022 | Digital literacy, Digital divide | Aging populations, Low income populations | Other state(s) | A program funded by a PCORI Engagement Award provided tablets and broadband access to older community members in Baltimore, Maryland. The program included one-on-one supportive training, which was found to be the most valuable component according to participant feedback. Previous experiences without ongoing support left participants unable to effectively use the technology. Having a trainer available instilled confidence and helped them learn to use the devices comfortably. | The program was conducted with 20 older community members, and its success was evaluated based on participant feedback. The participants reported that the program was highly beneficial as it provided one-on-one support, resulting in increased confidence in using digital devices. | The Emergency Broadband Benefits program is a federal-funded initiative that provides financial assistance for broadband access and devices to eligible individuals, with monthly payments of up to $50 for broadband plans and up to $100 for devices. There are also other programs at local, state, and federal levels that support broadband expansion. These programs reflect the growing recognition of broadband as a necessity and highlight the importance of addressing accessibility and affordability to promote equity. Community-based organizations often play a key role in spreading information about these benefits to the public. | The process of digital inclusion involves enrolling individuals and providing them with the necessary support to use devices and access the Internet effectively. Public and philanthropic programs are available to offer service support at little or no cost, and outreach efforts can help connect people to these programs. Faith-based groups and community-based organizations can also serve as valuable partners in disseminating information and resources to promote digital inclusion. | Gleason, K, & Suen, JJ. (2021). Going beyond affordability for digital equity: Closing the “Digital Divide” through outreach and training programs for older adults. Journal of the American Geriatrics Society; 70(1): 75- 77. doi:10.1111/jgs.17511 | (Gleason & Suen, 2021) | |||
| Journal article | When Being Connected is not Enough. An Analysis of the Second and Third Levels of the Digital Divide in a Developing Country | This study addresses the digital divide in Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) by focusing on Internet use patterns and outcomes in Nigeria. Previous research in SSA has primarily focused on factors driving the initial digital divide, but with increased Internet connectivity, attention has shifted to understanding usage patterns and overall impact. The study aims to fill this gap by investigating the extent and patterns of Internet use in Nigeria and exploring the factors influencing different Internet activities and individual outcomes. The Uses and Gratifications Theory (UGT) is applied, and a survey of 1,500 mobile users is conducted. The study examines differences in engagement with Internet activities and outcomes across socioeconomic groups in Nigeria. | When Being Connected is not Enough. An Analysis of the Second and Third Levels of the Digital Divide in a Developing Country | 2020 | Digital skills, Digital divide | Rural residents | International | Drawing on the Uses and Gratifications Theory (UGT), this study identified distinct classifications and predictors of Internet activities, representing the second-level digital divide, as well as Internet outcomes, representing the third-level digital divide. The study reveals that gender, age, and education predict variations in Internet use in a developing country. Women engage more in social activities, while men focus on economic tasks. Older individuals use the Internet less for personal development. Higher education is associated with greater frequency of Internet use across various activities. These findings highlight the digital divide's connection to socioeconomic inequalities. Furthermore, Internet use patterns significantly influence outcomes, with social activities yielding notable offline benefits. Engagement in development and news activities also leads to corresponding outcomes. | The study used three measurements: 1 - Second-level (Internet activities): This paper adopts a common approach used in previous studies to measure the second-level digital divide. The frequency of various online activities serves as an indicator. The Internet activities examined in this research were identified based on the Uses and Gratifications Theory (UGT) and were validated through pretesting. 2- Third-level (Internet outcomes): The survey included Internet activities as a basis for identifying anticipated outcomes from Internet use. For instance, using the Internet to apply for an academic program served as an activity that could potentially lead to the outcome of being accepted into the program. 3 - The Unified Theory of the Acceptance and Use of Technology (UTAUT) measures: The analysis of UTAUT measures reveals that around 20% of Internet users and over 90% of non-users lack the necessary technical skills to utilize the Internet for various activities. Additionally, non-users have a limited belief that the Internet can enhance overall well-being. | - Lack of consideration for interaction effects: The study acknowledges that socioeconomic factors influence individual use patterns, but it did not investigate the interaction effects between these factors and individual use patterns. Future research could explore these interaction effects to gain a more comprehensive understanding of the digital divide. -Limited measures from the UTAUT model: The study applied only limited measures from the UTAUT model to investigate differences in Internet use patterns, and the effects were found to be limited. Future studies could incorporate multiple measures in each construct of the UTAUT model to conduct a more robust analysis of its effects on the second-level digital divide. | Policy implication recommandations: Target vulnerable populations: Policies should focus on bridging the digital divide among low-educated and female populations, specifically promoting their internet access and use for economic opportunities. Address systemic inequalities: Closing the digital divide requires addressing existing social inequalities alongside improving digital access and literacy. Empower females for economic opportunities: Implement campaigns and subsidies to increase females' internet use, providing access to online training and courses. Utilize social activities: Promote frequent engagement with the internet through social activities to enhance technical skills and broaden online participation. Develop technical skills: Provide opportunities for the digitally vulnerable to improve their technical skills through peer networks, support systems, and user-friendly applications. | Ogbo, E., Brown, T., Gant, J., & Sicker, D. (2020). When being connected is not enough. an analysis of the second and third levels of the digital divide in a developing country. SSRN Electronic Journal. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3749699 | (Ogbo et al., 2020) | |||
| White Paper | Broadband Adoption and Use in America: OBI Working Paper Series No. 1 | This report shares the findings of a survey conducted by the FCC in "October and November of 2009 in an effort to understand the state of broadband adoption and use, as well as barriers facing those who do not have broadband at home" (p. 3). Some of those findings include the following: "The main dividing lines for access are along socioeconomic dimensions such as income and education" (p. 3), "On average, Americans pay nearly $41 per month for broadband service, but half of those who receive their broadband in a bundle with other services cannot identify the Internet portion of their bill" (p. 3), "Broadband users overwhelmingly view the social aspects of the Internet as very important to them, while watching TV, videos or movies online and playing games were deemed less important" (p. 4), and "Broadband users exhibit varying degrees of understanding of digital concepts. That, in turn, influences what they do online" (p. 4). The authors identify 6 key population groups in their report: families, low-income Americans, African-Americans, Hispanics, people with disabilities, and rural Americans. | Broadband Adoption and Use in America: OBI Working Paper Series No. 1 | 2010 | Digital divide, Broadband access | Rural residents, People with disabilities, Racial or ethnic minorities, Aging populations, Low income populations | Nationwide (USA) | Urban, Suburban, Rural | "- 78 percent of adults are Internet users, whether that means broadband, dial-up, access from home or access from someplace other than home. - 74 percent of adults have access at home. - 67 percent of U.S. households contain a broadband user who accesses the service at home. - 65 percent of adults are broadband adopters. The discrepancy of two percentage points between household and individual home use is because some survey respondents are nonbroadband users but live with someone who, at home, is. - 6 percent of Americans use dial-up Internet connections as their main form of home access. - 6 percent are Internet users but do not use it from home; they access the Internet from places such as work, the library or community centers." (p. 3) "People take advantage of multiple devices and services to go online, but these are usually supplementary access paths for them." (p. 4) | The findings in this report are from the Federal Communications Commission’s October-November 2009 survey of 5,005 Americans. | "There are three primary reasons why the 35 percent of non-adopting Americans do not have broadband: cost, lack of digital literacy and broadband is not sufficiently relevant for them to purchase it" (p. 5); additionally, "Of these non-adopters, 12 percent say they cannot get broadband where they live" (p. 5). | This report was completed with help from the National Broadband Taskforce, and "The FCC’s survey results compare favorably to a similar survey conducted in the fall of 2009 by the Census Bureau for the National Telecommunications and Information Administration" (p. 11). | It is beneficial to survey both adopters and non-adopters when attempting to understand the success of an initiative. | Horrigan, J. B. (2010). Broadband Adoption and Use in America. OBI Working Paper Series No. 1. https://docs.fcc.gov/public/attachments/DOC-296442A1.pdf | (Horrigan, 2010) | |
| Policy Report | How to Unlock the Power of Prison Education | Policy report based on the author's study using the OECD Survey of Adult Skills (PIAAC) focusing on people who are currently incarcerated. | How to Unlock the Power of Prison Education | 2020 | Digital skills, Digital upskilling, Digital inclusion | Incarcerated individuals | Nationwide (USA) | Urban, Suburban, Rural | There are gaps on what types of programs for the incarcerated are most effective - including what types of education and how much to use. The author theorizes that possibly bringing them up to a solid PIAAC Level 3 or higher, the recidivism rate would be significantly better. "If you could raise their PIAAC level by providing them with programs to develop the skills they lack and follow them after release, I suspect those with higher skill levels would be found to do better. There is a need to do other research to find out what types of academic and career programs have better payoffs for students and society, but I would like to see more PIAAC research in corrections overall." (AIR interview, 2020) | Author quote from interview: "PIAAC really laid out what areas of skills were lacking after people leave school, either before or during incarceration. That is an important aspect because in corrections, we tend to justify programs for politicians and for the public by saying what the impact is and why it should be funded." | Barriers: state models for reentry to society are weak, bureaucratic problems and poor incentives to educational attainment. There is a lack of current technology in the correctional classroom and poor funding for educational programs. | Not much information has been collected, especially long-term data, and not a common set of standards. | The author said PIAAC assessment can give us a much better idea of deficits in the population explored, placing more attention on computer literacy skills. We cannot fully function in society without technology skills. People in prison are generally not able to keep up with the current technology skills that those in society learn along the way. | Use of incentives to participate in education programs. Example used of reducing sentence for completing programs. Could also make education programs mandatory for corrections. | Suggested citation (in document): Stephen J. Steurer. How to Unlock the Power of Prison Education (Princeton, NJ: Educational Testing Service, 2020). |
Digital Literacy and Equity Literature and Resources
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